利用荧光共振能量转移技术研究活细胞TLR4与MD-2作用结构域

脂多糖(LPS)的识别和信号转导是宿主发生防御反应的关键,Toll样受体4(TLR4)与髓样分化蛋白-2(MD-2)形成复合物在LPS的识别及其信号转导中发挥了重要作用．研究TLR4与MD-2结合的功能结构域,对于深入了解LPS信号转导机制及其内毒素休克的防治具有重要意义．运用基于强度的三通道荧光共振能量转移技术(FRET)及基因突变和转染技术,研究了活细胞TLR4与MD-2作用的结构域．结果表明：N端Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹缺失使TLR4与MD-2结合能力明显下降;LPS刺激后TLR4聚合迅速增加,而缺失Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹的TLR4不能聚合．上述结果提示,TLR4的Glu²⁴～Met⁴¹不仅是结合MD-2的区域,并且还参与了LPS刺激后TLR4的聚合作用．     

Toll样受体4介导内毒素对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活

为探讨Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)在内毒素(LPS)对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用,以LPS刺激培养的ECV-304细胞为模型,运用RT-PCR和蛋白质印迹技术检测了内皮细胞TLR4的表达及LPS对其表达的影响.同时利用基因转染和抗体阻断方法进一步观察了TLR4在LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用.研究发现,LPS能明显上调内皮细胞TLR4的表达,呈一定的时间和剂量依赖性.转染TLR4的功能突变体和运用抗TLR4单抗能明显抑制LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活.提示TLR4介导了LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活,可能在LPS对内皮细胞激活/损伤效应中具有重要的地位.     

Toll样受体及其信号转导

Toll样受体(TLR)介导着绝大部分哺乳动物、昆虫及植物的宿主防御. TLR4与配体结合涉及膜抗原CD14和分泌蛋白MD-2的调节并一起形成受体复合物, 然后与接头分子MyD88结合, 使IRAK磷酸化, 再使TRAF6寡聚化, 随后激活控制着各种效应基因表达的转录因子NF-κB.     

Toll样受体抗体抑制脂多糖激活巨噬细胞的吞噬活行

应用脂多糖(LPS)激活巨噬细胞后其吞噬能力大大增强,以此为模型发现TLR2的多抗能部分抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬金葡萄球菌的能力,也能部分阻断对U937细胞的吞噬活性.TRAIL或TNFα多克隆抗体同样能起到类似作用.实验还发现低浓度血清培养亦在一定程度上抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞的吞噬作用.结果证实TLR2能介导LPS的功能,而某些血清因子参与了介导LPS的信号转导过程,提示LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬能力的提高与诱导表达TRAIL等细胞因子有关.     

Toll样受体抗体抑制脂多糖激活巨噬细胞的吞噬活性

应用脂多糖(LPS)激活巨噬细胞后其吞噬能力大大增强, 以此为模型发现TLR2的多抗能部分抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬金葡萄球菌的能力, 也能部分阻断对U937细胞的吞噬活性. TRAIL或TNFα多克隆抗体同样能起到类似作用. 实验还发现低浓度血清培养亦在一定程度上抑制LPS激活巨噬细胞的吞噬作用. 结果证实TLR2能介导LPS的功能, 而某些血清因子参与了介导LPS的信号转导过程, 提示LPS激活巨噬细胞吞噬能力的提高与诱导表达TRAIL等细胞因子有关.     

鼻咽癌细胞5-8F通过TLR4介导的信号通路对革兰氏阴性细菌脂多糖的反应性研究

鼻咽上皮细胞无时无刻不暴露和接触到共生微生物与病原微生物,机体依靠天然防御系统和抗原识别的适应性免疫反应系统来进行自我保护.慢性感染的重要毒力因素被认为是革兰氏阴性细菌细胞壁的主要成分脂多糖(LPS),对LPS的识别与信号传导是宿主细胞抵御革兰氏阴性细菌的关键.通过流式细胞术、RT-PCR等研究发现,5-8F细胞可与LPS相结合并产生反应,且其受LPS调节的机制是由于5-8F细胞中存在LPS受体分子如CD14、TLR4与MD2等的表达.同时应用免疫荧光、蛋白质印迹、荧光素酶报告系统等研究发现,5-8F细胞可受到LPS的诱导而活化TLR4的下游信号传导通路.5-8F细胞在LPS的诱导下,磷酸化NFκBp65的表达增加,并且使NFκBp65活化迁移至核内.研究还发现,LPS增加TNF-α全长启动子活性,同时LPS可使5-8F细胞中TNF-α的分泌增加,从而介导炎性因子的释放.因此,5-8F细胞可通过与LPS受体分子:CD14、TLR4及MD2与LPS相结合并反应,从而激活TLR4介导的NFκB信号通路,使炎性因子的释放增加,导致鼻咽部的炎症反应诱发鼻咽癌.     

TLR4/P38/JNK信号通路在海马神经元凋亡中的作用

目的：探讨Toll样受体4（TLR4）/P38/JNK信号通路在海马神经元凋亡中的作用及其机制,为神经退行性疾病（ND）的发病机制与防治研究提供新的实验依据。方法：采用体外培养7 d的新生大鼠海马神经元,免疫荧光双标法鉴定海马神经元纯度。用TLR4配体脂多糖（LPS）或TLR4抗体预处理海马神经元,以激活或阻断TLR4的作用。实验1设正常对照组、LPS组及TLR4抗体+ LPS组;免疫荧光法检测P-P38,P-JNK的表达。实验2分为6组：正常对照组,LPS组,TLR4抗体+ LPS组,SB202190（抑制P38） + LPS组,SP600125（抑制JNK） + LPS组,PD98059（抑制ERK） + LPS组;分别用TLR4抗体、P38、JNK及ERK的抑制剂预处理海马神经元后再给以LPS刺激24 h,Western blot法检测Bcl-2,Bax,Active-caspase-3的表达变化;流式细胞术检测海马神经元凋亡率。结果：LPS组海马神经元P-P38、P-JNK的表达明显高于正常对照组（P < 0. 01）,TLR4抗体+ LPS组P-P38,P-JNK表达显著低于LPS组（P <0.01）。与正常对照组相比,LPS组海马神经元Bcl-2/Bax表达减少、Active-caspase-3表达增加,海马神经元凋亡率增加（P < 0.01）。而TLR4抗体+ LPS组、SB202190 + LPS组、SP600125 + LPS组Bcl-2/Bax显著高于LPS组、Active cas-pase-3显著低于LPS组（P < 0.01）,海马神经元凋亡率显著低于LPS组（P < 0. 05,P < 0. 01）。PD98059 + LPS组与LPS组海马神经元凋亡率无明显差异。结论：①海马神经元中有TLR4介导的P38/JNK信号通路。②海马神经元TLR4激活后,P-P38、P-JNK表达增加,使Bcl-2/Bax的比例降低和Active-caspase-3表达增加,从而促进海马神经元的凋亡。海马神经元凋亡过程中有TLR4介导的P38/JNK信号通路的参与。     

体外模拟脑缺血再灌注条件下BV-2细胞TLR4信号途径对TLR2表达的影响

研究证实,TLR4和TLR2有可能作为重要炎性受体介导脑缺血再灌注炎性损伤.然而目前还不清楚在此过程中TLR2和TLR4受体之间是否存在着交叉对话可能.本研究首先利用针对TLR4基因的RNA干扰技术阻断体外模拟脑I/R条件下BV-2细胞TLR4信号传导途径,观察此时TLR2受体表达变化,初步探讨TLR4信号途径对TLR2表达的影响.然后利用NF-κB抑制剂PDTC阻断NF-κB活性来观察体外模拟脑I/R条件下BV-2细胞TLR2和TLR4受体表达变化,进一步阐明NF-κB在TLR2和TLR4交叉对话中的作用.结果表明：（1）体外模拟脑I/R条件下阻断BV-2细胞TLR4信号传导途径可以明显抑制TLR2和NF-κB表达的上调;（2）PDTC预处理后在体外模拟脑I/R条件下BV-2细胞TLR2和TLR4的表达均下调.结果提示,脑I/R损伤中TLR4受体激活后有可能通过NF-κB的介导,进一步影响TLR2的表达,从而导致炎症反应的链式放大,两者协同加重了脑损伤的过程.     

髓样分化蛋白-2在天然免疫中的作用

Toll样受体 (Toll likereceptor ,TLR)家族作为模式识别受体 ,在天然免疫中具有重要作用。髓样分化蛋白 2 (myeloiddifferentialprotein 2 ,MD 2 )可能含有两个相对独立的功能结构域 ,既能与Toll样受体家族中的TLR4、TLR2结合 ,也能与多种配体结合 (包括lipopolysaccharide ,LPS)。这种特殊的结构可能与其三方面的主要功能有关 :(1)MD 2与TLR4结合 ,赋予TLR4对各种配体 (包括LPS)的反应性 ;(2 )MD 2与TLR2结合 ,赋予TLR2对LPS的反应性 ,并增强TLR2对细菌及其胞壁成分的反应性 ;(3)MD 2能促进TLR4和TLR2的表达 ,并且与TLR4在细胞内的分布密切相关。这表明MD 2可以通过两种方式直接或间接调控TLRs的功能 :与TLR2 /TLR4结合 ,或调控TLR2 /TLR4的表达与分布。因而MD 2不仅仅是TLR4的辅助分子 ,而且还是天然免疫中的调控分子 ,可能在感染、炎症、免疫等病理生理过程中具有更广泛的生物学功能     

TLR4在哺乳动物对脂多糖反应中的作用

Toll信号转导通路在果蝇的发育和天然免疫反应中起重要作用.最近在小鼠进行的定点克隆研究表明Lps位座编码一种Toll样受体TLR4,该受体作为LPS受体复合物的跨膜成分而转导脂多糖(LPS)信号,而其相关蛋白TLR2则在其他病原体微生物介导的细胞反应中起作用.TLR4的发现使我们对LPS信号转导通路的认识前进了一大步.     

The lipopolysaccharide-recognition mechanism in cells expressing TLR4 and CD14 but lacking MD-2

We analysed the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-recognition mechanism in cells expressing TLR4 and CD14 but lacking MD-2. When TLR4 and CD14 were transiently expressed in HEK293 cells, cell-surface expression of TLR4 was observed, although the expression level was lower than that in cells coexpressing MD-2. We found that membrane CD14-TLR4 complexes were formed in these cells in response to LPS stimulation even in the absence of MD-2 expression, although NF-kappaB-dependent reporter activity was not induced. A strong activation of NF-kappaB was observed when these cells were stimulated with LPS followed by soluble MD-2 in this order, even when excess LPS was removed after formation of the CD14-TLR4 complex by washing cells prior to sMD-2 addition. From these results, we propose an additional LPS-recognition mechanism. In cells expressing TLR4 and CD14 but lacking MD-2, LPS is first transferred to membrane CD14 with the aid of LPS binding protein, which leads to the formation of the TLR4-CD14 complex. Then, the binding of soluble MD-2 to this complex triggers the transmembrane signal transduction. Cells expressing TLR4 and CD14 but lacking MD-2, such as airway epithelial cells, may be activated in response to LPS by this mechanism.     

Isolation of monomeric and dimeric secreted MD-2. Endotoxin.sCD14 and Toll-like receptor 4 ectodomain selectively react with the monomeric form of secreted MD-2

Potent cell activation by endotoxin requires sequential protein-endotoxin and protein-protein interactions involving lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, CD14, MD-2, and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). MD-2 plays an essential role by bridging endotoxin (E) recognition initiated by lipopolysaccharide-binding protein and CD14 to TLR4 activation by presenting endotoxin as a monomeric E.MD-2 complex that directly and potently activates TLR4. Secreted MD-2 (sMD-2) exists as a mixture of monomers and multimers. Published data suggest that only MD-2 monomer can interact with endotoxin and TLR4 and support cell activation, but the apparent instability of MD-2 has thwarted efforts to more fully separate and characterize the individual species of sMD-2. We have taken advantage of the much greater stability of sMD-2 in insect culture medium to fully separate sMD-2 monomer from dimer by gel sieving chromatography. At low nanomolar concentrations, the sMD-2 monomer, but not dimer, reacted with a monomeric complex of E.sCD14 to form monomeric E.MD-2 and activate HEK293/TLR4 cells. The monomer, but not dimer, also reacted with the ectodomain of TLR4 with an affinity comparable with the picomolar affinity of E.MD-2. These findings demonstrate directly that the monomeric form of sMD-2 is the active species both for reaction with E.CD14 and TLR4, as needed for potent endotoxin-induced TLR4 activation.     

MD-2 mediates the ability of tetra-acylated and penta-acylated lipopolysaccharides to antagonize Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide at the TLR4 signaling complex

We have demonstrated previously that tetra-acylated LPS derived from the oral bacterium, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and penta-acylated msbB LPS derived from a mutant strain of Escherichia coli can antagonize the ability of canonical hexa-acylated E. coli LPS to signal through the TLR4 signaling complex in human endothelial cells. Activation of the TLR4 signaling complex requires the coordinated function of LPS binding protein (LBP), CD14, MD-2, and TLR4. To elucidate the specific molecular components that mediate antagonism, we developed a recombinant human TLR4 signaling complex that displayed efficient LPS-dependent antagonism of E. coli LPS in HEK293 cells. Notably, changes in the expression levels of TLR4 in HEK293 cells modulated the efficiency of antagonism by P. gingivalis LPS. Both soluble (s) CD14 and membrane (m) CD14 supported efficient P. gingivalis LPS-dependent and msbB LPS-dependent antagonism of E. coli LPS in the recombinant TLR4 system. When cells expressing TLR4, MD-2, and mCD14 were exposed to LPS in the absence of serum-derived LBP, efficient LPS-dependent antagonism of E. coli LPS was still observed indicating that LPS-dependent antagonism occurs downstream of LBP. Experiments using immunoprecipitates of sCD14 or sMD-2 that had been pre-exposed to agonist and antagonist indicated that LPS-dependent antagonism occurs partially at sCD14 and potently at sMD-2. This study provides novel evidence that expression levels of TLR4 can modulate the efficiency of LPS-dependent antagonism. However, MD-2 represents the principal molecular component that tetra-acylated P. gingivalis LPS and penta-acylated msbB LPS use to antagonize hexa-acylated E. coli LPS at the TLR4 signaling complex.     

Toll-like receptor 4 region Glu24-Lys47 is a site for MD-2 binding: importance of CYS29 and CYS40

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a signaling receptor for lipopolysaccharide (LPS), but its interaction with MD-2 is required for efficient responses to LPS. Previous studies with deletion mutants indicate a critical role of the amino-terminal TLR4 region in interaction with MD-2. However, it is uncertain which region in the TLR4 molecule directly binds to MD-2. The purpose of this study was to determine a critical stretch of primary sequence in the TLR4 region that directly binds MD-2 and is critical for LPS signaling. The synthetic TLR4 peptide corresponding to the TLR4 region Glu(24)-Lys(47) directly binds to recombinant soluble MD-2 (sMD-2). The TLR4 peptide inhibited the binding of a recombinant soluble form of the extracellular TLR4 domain (sTLR4) to sMD-2 and significantly attenuated LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation and IL-8 secretion in wild type TLR4-transfected cells. Reduction and S-carboxymethylation of sTLR4 abrogated its association with sMD-2. The TLR4 mutants, TLR4(C29A), TLR4(C40A), and TLR4(C29A,C40A), were neither co-precipitated with MD-2 nor expressed on the cell surface and failed to transmit LPS signaling. These results demonstrate that the TLR4 region Glu(24)-Lys(47) is a site for MD-2 binding and that Cys(29) and Cys(40) within this region are critical residues for MD-2 binding and LPS signaling.     

Lysines 128 and 132 enable lipopolysaccharide binding to MD-2, leading to Toll-like receptor-4 aggregation and signal transduction

Three cell-surface proteins have been recognized as components of the mammalian signaling receptor for bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS): CD14, Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), and MD-2. Biochemical and visual studies shown here demonstrate that the role of CD14 in signal transduction is to enhance LPS binding to MD-2, although its expression is not essential for cellular activation. These studies clarify how MD-2 functions: we found that MD-2 enables TLR4 binding to LPS and allows the formation of stable receptor complexes. MD-2 must be bound to TLR4 on the cell surface before binding can occur. Consequently, TLR4 clusters into receptosomes (many of which are massive) that recruit intracellular toll/IL-1/resistance domain-containing adapter proteins within minutes, thus initiating signal transduction. TLR4 activation correlates with the ability of MD-2 to bind LPS, as MD-2 mutants that still bind TLR4, but are impaired in the ability to bind LPS, conferred a greatly blunted LPS response. These findings help clarify the earliest events of TLR4 triggering by LPS and identify MD-2 as an attractive target for pharmacological intervention in endotoxin-mediated diseases.     

Penta-acylated lipopolisaccharide binds to murine MD-2 but does not induce the oligomerization of TLR4 required for signal transduction

A mutant lipopolysaccharide (LPS) lacking a myristate chain in lipid A was shown to be non-pathogenic both in humans and mice. The mutant penta-acylated LPS from the lpxM-strain did not induce TNF-alpha production in murine peritoneal macrophages, or activation of NF-kappaB in transfected cells expressing murine TLR4/MD-2. We prepared a recombinant murine MD-2 in Escherichia coli (E. coli), and examined the binding function. Unexpectedly, specific binding was detected to both wild type and mutant LPS. However, the mutant LPS did not induce conformation changes or oligomerization of TLR4, which have been shown to be required for signal transduction. Mutant LPS appears to fail to induce appropriate conformational changes, resulting in oligomerization of the murine complex for triggering cell responses.     

Mouse toll-like receptor 4.MD-2 complex mediates lipopolysaccharide-mimetic signal transduction by Taxol

Taxol, an antitumor agent derived from a plant, mimics the action of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice but not in humans. Although Taxol is structurally unrelated to LPS, Taxol and LPS are presumed to share a receptor or signaling molecule. The LPS-mimetic activity of Taxol is not observed in LPS-hyporesponsive C3H/HeJ mice, which possess a point mutation in Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4); therefore, TLR4 appears to be involved in both Taxol and LPS signaling. In addition, TLR4 was recently shown to physically associate with MD-2, a molecule that confers LPS responsiveness on TLR4. To determine whether TLR4.MD-2 complex mediates a Taxol-induced signal, we constructed transformants of the mouse pro-B cell line, Ba/F3, expressing mouse TLR4 alone, both mouse TLR4 and mouse MD-2, and both mouse MD-2 and mouse TLR4 lacking the cytoplasmic portion, and then examined whether Taxol induced NFkappaB activation in these transfectants. Noticeable NFkappaB activation by Taxol was detected in Ba/F3 expressing mouse TLR4 and mouse MD-2 but not in the other transfectants. Coexpression of human TLR4 and human MD-2 did not confer Taxol responsiveness on Ba/F3 cells, suggesting that the TLR4. MD-2 complex is responsible for the species specificity with respect to Taxol responsiveness. Furthermore, Taxol-induced NFkappaB activation via TLR4.MD-2 was blocked by an LPS antagonist that blocks LPS-induced NFkappaB activation via TLR4.MD-2. These results demonstrated that coexpression of mouse TLR4 and mouse MD-2 is required for Taxol responsiveness and that the TLR4.MD-2 complex is the shared molecule in Taxol and LPS signal transduction in mice.     

Genome-wide expression profiling and mutagenesis studies reveal that lipopolysaccharide responsiveness appears to be absolutely dependent on TLR4 and MD-2 expression and is dependent upon intermolecular ionic interactions

Lipid A (a hexaacylated 1,4' bisphosphate) is a potent immune stimulant for TLR4/MD-2. Upon lipid A ligation, the TLR4/MD-2 complex dimerizes and initiates signal transduction. Historically, studies also suggested the existence of TLR4/MD-2-independent LPS signaling. In this article, we define the role of TLR4 and MD-2 in LPS signaling by using genome-wide expression profiling in TLR4- and MD-2-deficient macrophages after stimulation with peptidoglycan-free LPS and synthetic Escherichia coli lipid A. Of the 1396 genes significantly induced or repressed by any one of the treatments in the wild-type macrophages, none was present in the TLR4- or MD-2-deficient macrophages, confirming that the TLR4/MD-2 complex is the only receptor for endotoxin and that both are required for responses to LPS. Using a molecular genetics approach, we investigated the mechanism of TLR4/MD-2 activation by combining the known crystal structure of TLR4/MD-2 with computer modeling. According to our murine TLR4/MD-2-activation model, the two phosphates on lipid A were predicted to interact extensively with the two positively charged patches on mouse TLR4. When either positive patch was abolished by mutagenesis into Ala, the responses to LPS and lipid A were nearly abrogated. However, the MyD88-dependent and -independent pathways were impaired to the same extent, indicating that the adjuvant activity of monophosphorylated lipid A most likely arises from its decreased potential to induce an active receptor complex and not more downstream signaling events. Hence, we concluded that ionic interactions between lipid A and TLR4 are essential for optimal LPS receptor activation.     

Recombinant soluble forms of extracellular TLR4 domain and MD-2 inhibit lipopolysaccharide binding on cell surface and dampen lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary inflammation in mice

In this study, we sought the possibility of a new therapeutic strategy for dampening endotoxin-induced inflammation using soluble form of extracellular rTLR4 domain (sTLR4) and soluble form of rMD-2 (sMD-2). Addition of sTLR4 plus sMD-2 was significantly effective in inhibiting LPS-elicited IL-8 release from U937 cells and NF-kappaB activation in the cells transfected with TLR4 and MD-2 when compared with a single treatment with sTLR4 or sMD-2. Thus, we investigated the role of the extracellular TLR4 domain in interaction of lipid A with MD-2. Biotinylated sTLR4 failed to coprecipitate [(3)H]lipid A when it was sedimented with streptavidin-agarose, demonstrating that the extracellular TLR4 domain does not directly bind lipid A by itself. The amounts of lipid A coprecipitated with sMD-2 significantly increased when coincubated with sTLR4, and sTLR4 increased the affinity of lipid A for the binding to sMD-2. Soluble CD14 is required for the sTLR4-stimulated increase of lipid A binding to sMD-2. We also found that addition of sTLR4 plus sMD-2 inhibited the binding of Alexa-conjugated LPS to the cells expressing TLR4 and MD-2. Murine lungs that had received sTLR4 plus sMD-2 with LPS did not show any findings indicative of interstitial edema, neutrophil flux, and hemorrhage. Co-instillation of sTLR4 plus sMD-2, but not sTLR4 or sMD-2 alone, significantly decreased neutrophil infiltration and TNF-alpha levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from LPS-treated mice. This study provides novel usage of sTLR4 and sMD-2 as an antagonist against endotoxin-induced pulmonary inflammation.     

A protein associated with toll-like receptor 4 (PRAT4A) regulates cell surface expression of TLR4

TLRs recognize microbial products. Their subcellular distribution is optimized for microbial recognition. Little is known, however, about mechanisms regulating the subcellular distribution of TLRs. LPS is recognized by the receptor complex consisting of TLR4 and MD-2. Although MD-2, a coreceptor for TLR4, enhances cell surface expression of TLR4, an additional mechanism regulating TLR4 distribution has been suggested. We show here that PRAT4A, a novel protein associated with TLR4, regulates cell surface expression of TLR4. PRAT4A is associated with the immature form of TLR4 but not with MD-2 or TLR2. PRAT4A knockdown abolished LPS responsiveness in a cell line expressing TLR4/MD-2, probably due to the lack of cell surface TLR4. PRAT4A knockdown down-regulated cell surface TLR4/MD-2 on dendritic cells. These results demonstrate a novel mechanism regulating TLR4/MD-2 expression on the cell surface.