膜转运蛋白的功能性超表达和纯化

膜转运蛋白结构和功能的研究是功能膜蛋白质组研究中的一个重要内容,而大量蛋白质的分离纯化是进行蛋白质的结构和功能研究的基础.目前,结构和功能膜蛋白质组学相关研究的瓶颈,在于不能有效地超量表达和纯化具有生物活性的膜转运蛋白.影响膜转运蛋白超量表达和纯化的关键因素,包括目标蛋白的拓扑学结构分析和去垢剂的选择.进行膜转运蛋白拓扑学结构的分析,对于构建用于活体表达的重组膜转运蛋白具有指导意义.去垢剂能够稳定去膜状态的膜蛋白,在膜转运蛋白的离体表达和亲和纯化以及包涵体的处理过程中具有重要的作用.本文就目前功能膜蛋白质组学研究中所涉及的有关膜转运蛋白功能性超表达和分离纯化策略及关键技术作一简述.     

分析超速离心技术研究膜蛋白TmrAB

去垢剂在膜蛋白的提取纯化过程中起到必要的作用,对膜蛋白的聚合状态、结晶条件以及理化性质等方面都有较大影响.分析超速离心技术(analytical ultracentrifuge,AUC)通过测定溶液中膜蛋白-去垢剂复合物在离心场中的沉降运动轨迹,可以分析获得其沉降系数、摩尔质量、流体力学半径、结合常数等水力学和热力学性质,进而判断膜蛋白-去垢剂复合物的均一性及聚合状态.本文以嗜热菌来源的ATP结合转运蛋白(ABC transporter)TmrAB作为研究对象,利用分析超速离心技术结合分子排阻层析和冷冻电镜负染技术,研究其均一性、聚合状态以及去垢剂与膜蛋白的摩尔比.结果显示,在8倍临界胶束浓度(critical micelle concentration,CMC)的DDM条件下,TmrAB性质均一,并以异二聚体的单体形式存在,DDM与Tmr AB的摩尔比为116∶1.本研究表明,分析超速离心技术是一种测定膜蛋白分子质量、研究膜蛋白聚合状态的可靠手段.     

淋巴细胞膜脂质对膜蛋白结构与功能的影响

淋巴细胞膜质组成及膜生物物理特性的变化显影响质膜上某些蛋白的结构与功能,膜脂质与膜蛋白的相互作用涉及两所带电荷性质,蛋白质疏水氨基酸等,同时也与两种分子空间位阻,水化作用有关。     

细胞膜的双层磷脂结构与功能

真核细胞及其亚细胞器如线粒体和内质网等的表面包被着双层磷脂膜结构,即质膜或生物膜。生物膜的功能是将细胞及细胞器与外界微环境隔离,并负责物质转运和信息传递。所有的质膜具有3个共同的结构特征:即连续排列的双层磷脂膜,两层磷脂分子疏水的非极性基团在内部,而其亲水极性基团分别朝向细胞或细胞器的内外表面;膜具有液态流动性;膜上或膜内镶嵌着大量种类和功能各异的蛋白质分子。生物膜的这种结构特征是由磷脂分子的物理化学特征以及细胞的生命特征和功能所决定的。     

膜蛋白结晶方法学研究进展

膜蛋白执行着物质运输、能量转换和信号转导等重要生物学功能,其分子的三维结构解析对阐述其功能及开展理性药物设计有着十分重要的意义．目前膜蛋白结构解析以X射线单晶衍射技术为主,该技术需要高质量晶体作为衍射对象．然而由于膜蛋白具有两亲性,难以得到高度有序的三维晶体,进而导致其结构解析十分困难．针对此问题,研究者们发展了一些专门面向膜蛋白的结晶方法,如基于去垢剂的方法,基于脂类的方法等．本文回顾了这些方法,并对未来膜蛋白的结晶研究进行了展望．     

纳米盘技术在临床医学领域研究新进展

膜蛋白功能广泛,参与多种细胞活动,如细胞增殖分化、信号转导、物质运输等,近年来一直是生物医学领域研究热点之一.膜蛋白天然构象的稳定是维持其生物活性的关键因素,新型纳米材料纳米盘技术采用两亲膜支架蛋白在水相中稳定磷脂分子,进而自组装形成类似于天然磷脂双分子膜环境的盘状结构,为膜蛋白的研究提供了理想平台.与传统拟膜技术相比,纳米盘具有可溶性强、稳定性佳、尺寸可控、生物相容性高、半衰期长等优点,同时可精准设计选择性靶向,应用优势巨大.本文介绍了纳米盘技术在膜蛋白结构与功能研究中的应用,并重点综述了其在临床医学领域中的研究新进展,包括纳米盘作为疏水性药物、抗肿瘤靶向治疗药物的运输载体,具有高载药率、药物可控释、靶向功能的运载能力;作为小分子蛋白的拟膜环境对目标蛋白的亲和固定性和作为高密度脂蛋白的有效补充在心血管疾病中清除胆固醇的高效性和可控性.综上,纳米盘技术能够为未来膜蛋白相关研究以及其他临床疾病的诊断与治疗提供新方法与新思路.     

电子顺磁共振技术在细胞膜研究中的应用

电子顺磁共振(EPR)技术具有高灵敏度、高分辨率的特性,通过自旋标记方法,可以用来研究膜蛋白质拓扑学、膜蛋白间相互作用、膜蛋白与磷脂膜相互作用过程中膜蛋白的结构变化以及细胞膜的流动性。在膜脂和膜蛋白的细胞生物学研究中具有广阔的应用前景。现对EPR技术在细胞膜研究中的应用进展做一综述。     

铜绿假单胞菌Psl多糖转运蛋白PslD的表达与纯化研究

条件性致病菌铜绿假单胞菌是细菌生物被膜研究的模式菌,其分泌的胞外多糖Psl在生物被膜形成中起关键作用。PslD为Psl多糖的转运蛋白,由256个氨基酸构成,生物信息学分析揭示其有N端信号肽且为一次跨膜蛋白。分离纯化完整跨膜蛋白需要去垢剂的作用,去垢剂种类繁多且性质不一,研究设计了一套筛选溶解PslD的去垢剂的方案。通过抗组氨酸标签的Western blot分析,n-Decyl-β-D-maltopyranoside (DM),n-Decyl-N,N-dimethylamine-N-oxide(DDAO)及n-Dodecyl-N,N-dimethylamine-N-oxide(LDAO)被认为溶解PslD的效率较高。通过改变总蛋白与去垢剂比例,进一步优化了去垢剂的溶解条件即8 mg/mL总蛋白:质量分数为1%的 LDAO。在此溶解条件下,仅通过第一步Ni柱亲和纯化目的蛋白纯度可到达80%以上,这为进一步结晶尝试及其结构生物学研究奠定基础。     

多肽分子疏水性的电喷雾飞行时间质谱法快速测定

疏水作用是决定生物分子的结构和性质的重要因素,特别是在蛋白质的折叠,药物分子与受体(蛋白质、DNA等)的相互作用中起着关键作用.分子疏水性的强弱决定于分子内非极性基团的含量.在一定的实验条件下,电喷雾所获得的信号与多肽分子内非极性基团的面积呈现良好的相关性.因此,采用电喷雾飞行时间质谱法,在数分钟之内快速测定了不同多肽之间的疏水性,所获得结果与色谱法结果一致.     

结核分枝杆菌膜蛋白的异源表达与纯化研究进展

膜蛋白是一类与生物膜相互作用、具有重要功能和独特结构的蛋白质。异源表达纯化一直是了解膜蛋白结构和功能的重要瓶颈。结核分枝杆菌作为典型的胞内致病菌,其膜蛋白的研究具有很好的代表性以及重要意义。目前用于表达膜蛋白的有大肠杆菌、酵母、哺乳动物细胞等表达系统,但结核菌膜蛋白的表达宿主还往往局限于大肠杆菌。异源表达需要综合考虑蛋白的来源、疏水性、跨膜区等特性。低温、加入共表达因子以及改变培养条件有助于结核菌膜蛋白的可溶性表达。另外,包涵体复性也是获得结核菌目的膜蛋白的重要途径。随着新的表达系统,新的促可溶表达策略,新的包涵体复性手段,新的纯化方法的应用,将有更多的膜蛋白异源表达纯化成功,为蛋白质功能研究奠定基础。     

Sequence-Specific Dimerization of a Transmembrane Helix in Amphipol A8-35

As traditional detergents might destabilize or even denature membrane proteins, amphiphilic polymers have moved into the focus of membrane-protein research in recent years. Thus far, Amphipols are the best studied amphiphilic copolymers, having a hydrophilic backbone with short hydrophobic chains. However, since stabilizing as well as destabilizing effects of the Amphipol belt on the structure of membrane proteins have been described, we systematically analyze the impact of the most commonly used Amphipol A8-35 on the structure and stability of a well-defined transmembrane protein model, the glycophorin A transmembrane helix dimer. Amphipols are not able to directly extract proteins from their native membranes, and detergents are typically replaced by Amphipols only after protein extraction from membranes. As Amphipols form mixed micelles with detergents, a better understanding of Amphipol-detergent interactions is required. Therefore, we analyze the interaction of A8-35 with the anionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate and describe the impact of the mixed-micelle-like system on the stability of a transmembrane helix dimer. As A8-35 may highly stabilize and thereby rigidify a transmembrane protein structure, modest destabilization by controlled addition of detergents and formation of mixed micellar systems might be helpful to preserve the function of a membrane protein in Amphipol environments.     

Deuterated detergents for structural and functional studies of membrane proteins: Properties,chemical synthesis and applications

Abstract

Detergents are amphiphilic compounds that have crucial roles in the extraction, purification and stabilization of integral membrane proteins and in experimental studies of their structure and function. One technique that is highly dependent on detergents for solubilization of membrane proteins is solution-state NMR spectroscopy, where detergent micelles often serve as the best membrane mimetic for achieving particle sizes that tumble fast enough to produce high-resolution and high-sensitivity spectra, although not necessarily the best mimetic for a biomembrane. For achieving the best quality NMR spectra, detergents with partial or complete deuteration can be used, which eliminate interfering proton signals coming from the detergent itself and also eliminate potential proton relaxation pathways and strong dipole-dipole interactions that contribute line broadening effects. Deuterated detergents have also been used to solubilize membrane proteins for other experimental techniques including small angle neutron scattering and single-crystal neutron diffraction and for studying membrane proteins immobilized on gold electrodes. This is a review of the properties, chemical synthesis and applications of detergents that are currently commercially available and/or that have been synthesized with partial or complete deuteration. Specifically, the detergents are sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), lauryldimethylamine-oxide (LDAO), n-octyl-β-D-glucoside (β-OG), n-dodecyl-β-D-maltoside (DDM) and fos-cholines including dodecylphosphocholine (DPC). The review also considers effects of deuteration, detergent screening and guidelines for detergent selection. Although deuterated detergents are relatively expensive and not always commercially available due to challenges associated with their chemical synthesis, they will continue to play important roles in structural and functional studies of membrane proteins, especially using solution-state NMR.     

High water solubility and fold in amphipols of proteins with large hydrophobic regions: oleosins and caleosin from seed lipid bodies

Seed lipid bodies constitute natural emulsions stabilized by specialized integral membrane proteins, among which the most abundant are oleosins, followed by the calcium binding caleosin. These proteins exhibit a triblock structure, with a highly hydrophobic central region comprising up to 71 residues. Little is known on their three-dimensional structure. Here we report the solubilization of caleosin and of two oleosins in aqueous solution, using various detergents or original amphiphilic polymers, amphipols. All three proteins, insoluble in water buffers, were maintained soluble either by anionic detergents or amphipols. Neutral detergents were ineffective. In complex with amphipols the oleosins and caleosin contain more beta and less alpha secondary structures than in the SDS detergent, as evaluated by synchrotron radiation circular dichroism. These are the first reported structural results on lipid bodies proteins maintained in solution with amphipols, a promising alternative to notoriously denaturing detergents.     

Modulation of DEG/ENaCs by Amphiphiles Suggests Sensitivity to Membrane Alterations

The bile acid-sensitive ion channel is activated by amphiphilic substances such as bile acids or artificial detergents via membrane alterations; however, the mechanism of membrane sensitivity of the bile acid-sensitive ion channel is not known. It has also not been systematically investigated whether other members of the degenerin/epithelial Na⁺ channel (DEG/ENaC) gene family are affected by amphiphilic compounds. Here, we show that DEG/ENaCs ASIC1a, ASIC3, ENaC, and the purinergic receptor P2X2 are modulated by a large number of different, structurally unrelated amphiphilic substances, namely the detergents N-lauroylsarcosine, Triton X-100, and β-octylglucoside; the fenamate flufenamic acid; the antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine; the natural phenol resveratrol; the chili pepper compound capsaicin; the loop diuretic furosemide; and the antiarrythmic agent verapamil. We determined the modification of membrane properties using large-angle x-ray diffraction experiments on model lipid bilayers, revealing that the amphiphilic compounds are positioned in a characteristic fashion either in the lipid tail group region or in the lipid head group region, demonstrating that they perturbed the membrane structure. Collectively, our results show that DEG/ENaCs and structurally related P2X receptors are modulated by diverse amphiphilic molecules. Furthermore, they suggest alterations of membrane properties by amphiphilic compounds as a mechanism contributing to modulation.     

An improved tripod amphiphile for membrane protein solubilization

Intrinsic membrane proteins represent a large fraction of the proteins produced by living organisms and perform many crucial functions. Structural and functional characterization of membrane proteins generally requires that they be extracted from the native lipid bilayer and solubilized with a small synthetic amphiphile, for example, a detergent. We describe the development of a small molecule with a distinctive amphiphilic architecture, a "tripod amphiphile," that solubilizes both bacteriorhodopsin (BR) and bovine rhodopsin (Rho). The polar portion of this amphiphile contains an amide and an amine-oxide; small variations in this polar segment are found to have profound effects on protein solubilization properties. The optimal tripod amphiphile extracts both BR and Rho from the native membrane environments and maintains each protein in a monomeric native-like form for several weeks after delipidation. Tripod amphiphiles are designed to display greater conformational rigidity than conventional detergents, with the long-range goal of promoting membrane protein crystallization. The results reported here represent an important step toward that ultimate goal.     

Reconstitution of purified dipeptidyl peptidase IV. A comparison with aminopeptidase N with respect to morphology and influence of anchoring peptide on function

The pig small intestinal dipeptidyl peptidase IV was asymmetrically integrated into egg phosphatidylcholine and microvillar lipid vesicles prepared by a beta-octylglucoside dialysis method. The enzyme molecules appeared dumbell-shaped ((11.0-11.5) X (5.0-5.5)nm) and were separated from the liposomal membrane by a stain-filled gap of about 2.5 nm, representing the 'junctional segment'. The influence of lipid bilayer and detergents on the kinetic parameters of amphiphilic and hydrophilic forms of aminopeptidase N and dipeptidyl peptidase IV was studied. Since the lipid bilayer and detergents, which interact only with the anchoring root, had no crucial effect on the kinetic parameters of the different forms of the enzymes, it is concluded that the anchoring roots exert little effect on the catalytic domain of the stalked integral membrane proteins.     

Use of detergents in two-dimensional crystallization of membrane proteins

Structure determination at high resolution is actually a difficult challenge for membrane proteins and the number of membrane proteins that have been crystallized is still small and far behind that of soluble proteins. Because of their amphiphilic character, membrane proteins need to be isolated, purified and crystallized in detergent solutions. This makes it difficult to grow the well-ordered three-dimensional crystals that are required for high resolution structure analysis by X-ray crystallography. In this difficult context, growing crystals confined to two dimensions (2D crystals) and their structural analysis by electron crystallography has opened a new way to solve the structure of membrane proteins. However, 2D crystallization is one of the major bottlenecks in the structural studies of membrane proteins. Advances in our understanding of the interaction between proteins, lipids and detergents as well as development and improvement of new strategies will facilitate the success rate of 2D crystallization. This review deals with the various available strategies for obtaining 2D crystals from detergent-solubilized intrinsic membrane proteins. It gives an overview of the methods that have been applied and gives details and suggestions of the physical processes leading to the formation of the ordered arrays which may be of help for getting more proteins crystallized in a form suitable for high resolution structural analysis by electron crystallography.     

Amphiphilic properties of the avian myeloblastosis virus major glycoprotein, gp 80

The major glycoprotein (gp 80) from avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) displays significant lipophilic properties, as shown by its strong interactions with acetylated uncharged decylamino agarose in hydrophobic chromatography. In effect, release from binding was achieved only by the added presence of a polarity reducing agent (ethylene glycol) and the strong anionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate. The hydrophobic behavior of the glycoprotein, coupled to the high content of hydrophilic carbohydrates, indicates its amphiphilic character. Confirmation of the amphiphilic nature of the AMV gp 80 was obtained by charge shift electrophoresis and crossed hydrophobic interaction immunoelectrophoresis. In both instances, the electrophoretic behavior of the glycoprotein was dependent on the presence of detergents. The AMV gp 80 displays the properties of integral membrane proteins.     

Amphilphilic nature of spiralin, the major protein of the Spiroplasma citri cell membrane.

Spiralin could not be solubilized in the absence of detergents, and it was shown by charge-shift crossed immunoelectrophoresis that this protein was capable of binding detergents under nondenaturing conditions. These properties indicate the amphiphilic nature of spiralin, which therefore should be regarded as an intrinsic membrane protein. The efficiency of mild (ionic and neutral) detergents to solubilize spiralin was as follows: deoxycholate greater than lauroyl sarcosinate, cholate, taurocholate, taurodeoxycholate greater than Triton X-100 greater than Brij 58 greater than Tween 20, indicating that mild ionic detergents were more effective than neutral ones. Solubilization of spiralin was quantitative with sodium deoxycholate. It was also shown that although a membrane protein is not extractable by a given detergent from the membrane, this does not necessarily mean that the protein is not soluble in this detergent.     

Neomycin-phenolic conjugates: polycationic amphiphiles with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, low hemolytic activity and weak serum protein binding

Here we present a proof-of-concept study, combining two known antimicrobial agents into a hybrid structure in order to develop an emergent cationic detergent-like interaction with the bacterial membrane. Six amphiphilic conjugates were prepared by copper (I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between a neomycin B-derived azide and three alkyne-modified phenolic disinfectants. Three conjugates displayed good activity against a variety of clinically relevant Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria, including MRSA, without the high level of hemolysis or strong binding to serum proteins commonly observed with other cationic antimicrobial peptides and detergents.