Nontimber Forest Product Use in Two Human Populations from Northwest Patagonia: A Quantitative Approach

The ancestral tradition of gathering nontimber products in the Andean forests of Patagonia seems to be on the verge of disappearing. Edible wild plant knowledge and differential patterns of use have been compared in two populations of different economic and cultural backgrounds—a small rural Mapuche community (Rams), and an outlying population (El Frutillar). The first is located in an herbaceous steppe far from the nearest Andean forest while the second is located outside the town of Bariloche, near the forests of Nahuel Huapi National Park. Semistructured interviews and related ecological variables were compared in both communities. In the past, both communities utilized nontimber forest products from the Andean Temperate forests. However, today, cost and benefit trade-offs appear to affect when and what edible resources are collected. The people from El Frutillar gather fewer wild plants in spite of the high plant abundance and the notorious food scarcity they suffer. The Mapuche people use more nutritious resources, more native species, spend longer traveling to the gathering site, and longer handling time preparing edible plants.     

Edible Wild Plant Use in a Mapuche Community of Northwestern Patagonia

Mapuche Indians have a long tradition of using edible wild resources. The people of Rams (Neuquén, Argentina) consider themselves descendants of the Pehuenches, an Indian group that once inhabited the Pehuén forest region. They now live in the steppe, far away from the forest. Our primary interests are how this community uses edible resources and in analyzing which plants are still utilized. We conducted an ethnobotanical study, which consisted in interviewing several Mapuche families and collecting plants with their help. Ecological variables of plant use, such as search cost, handling time, and nutritional content, were analyzed from the perspective of Optimal Foraging Theory. Our results indicate that the Rams inhabitants have a thorough understanding of their environment, expressed in a selective gathering of wild resources. Cost and benefit trade-offs seem to be considered when edible plants are collected.     

Patterns of use and knowledge of wild edible plants in distinct ecological environments: a case study of a Mapuche community from northwestern Patagonia

The multiple use of distinct ecological environments in the search for wild resources has been practiced since ancestral times in aboriginal communities inhabiting northwestern Patagonia. This paper examines the actual use and knowledge of wild edible plants in a Mapuche community presently settled in one of the most arid areas of Patagonia, far from the temperate forests where their ancestors used to live. The difference between knowledge of and use of wild plants is analyzed emphasizing that these differences could contribute to the understanding of eroding processes believed to be occurring in the community. These objectives are studied quantitatively by utilizing ethnobotanical indices, partially derived from ecological theory. Our results indicate that the Paineo dwellers still utilize multiple ecological gathering environments and have thorough plant knowledge of both native and exotic species. The Andean forest, more than 50km away from this community, is the environment from which the Paineo dwellers know the greatest total richness and the highest diversity of wild edible plants, followed by the Monte–Steppe species and lastly, those growing around their homes. The transmission of wild edible plant knowledge in the Paineo community diminishes with age, and the forest plants are the most vulnerable to loss. Our results have shown that the knowledge and consumption of wild edible plants follows a pattern according to ecological conditions of the gathering environments, as well as the cultural heritage of the Paineo people.     

The maintenance of wild edible plant gathering in a Mapuche community of patagonia

The Mapuche communities of Argentina and Chile have a vast knowledge of useful plants from temperate forests of Patagonia. However, present processes of transculturation and uprooting seem to have caused a decline in wild plant gathering. This is a case study of a Mapuche community that now lives far away from the forests that their ancestors inhabited. Nineteen families from the Rams Mapuche community (83% of the total population) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire, with the aim of finding out which edible wild species are known and still used, and what factors, according to the people perception, have caused the decline. People mentioned a total of 49 edible wild plants including four types of resources: Araucaria araucana seeds, the fruits and roots of bushes and herbs, and leaves of edible weeds. Factors such as the difficulty access to forests which no longer belong to them, drought and soil deterioration from overgrazing were indicated by people acting negatively on the preservation of the knowledge of plants in the younger generations.     

Summer Cattle Transhumance and Wild Edible Plant Gathering in a Mapuche Community of Northwestern Patagonia

Cattle transhumance has been practiced since colonial times in Mapuche communities of northwestern Patagonia, which travelled seasonally along the Andean valleys from arid lands towards temperate forests. In this study, we analyzed how this migratory practice affects the abundance and variety of wild edible plants utilized by the Mapuche community of Paineo. Patterns of use for those who practice transhumance were compared with those who do not utilizing ecological variables. Gender and age were also evaluated. The Paineo people collect wild plants in 3 different gathering sites: the A. araucana forest, the Travesía, and their dwelling surroundings. However, those who practice summer transhumance utilize a more diverse variety and a tan greater quantity of wild edible forest plants than those who do not. Moreover, the nutritional value of plants collected by transhumants is greater than those used by non-transhumants. Men practice summer cattle transhumance in a greater proportion than do women and consume significantly more wild edible plants. In contrast, plants from their dwellings and from the Travesía are used in a similar way by both sexes. It was observed that the elderly do not presently participate in transhumance. Our results illustrate a change in wild plant knowledge influenced by the transformation of the summer transhumance pattern.     

陕北典型退耕还林区林下草本物种生态位研究

基于样方法进行不同资源位的群落调查,并用群落物种多样性、生态位宽度、生态位重叠和生态位相似性比例分析了安塞县典型退耕区16种不同退耕模式及年限群落林下草本物种生态位特征。结果表明:乔木林下草本群落物种多样性高于灌木林。生态位宽度以达乌里胡枝子和阿尔泰狗娃花最大,它们的Shannon-Wiener(Bs-w,i)和Levins(Bl,i)指数分别为0.89、0.83和0.64、0.58。生态位宽度较大的种间生态位重叠程度大,如阿尔泰狗娃花、铁杆蒿、长芒草等。生态位宽度与生态位相似比例值并不一致。生态位相似性比例小于0.5的种对有174对,约占种群总对数的91.6%,说明种群对环境需求有较大的差异,各种群能较好地共生于群落中。     

Identifying prehistoric collected wild plants: A case study from late bronze age settlements in the french alps (Grésine, Bourget Lake, Savoie)

The late Bronze Age lakeshore settlements of Grésine (French Alps) have yielded archaeobotanical evidence of 14 cultivated and 153 wild plants. Some of the wild taxa may have been collected, but many are probably here by chance. Three criteria are used as evidence for human transport and manipulation of wild plant remains: number of items, fragmentation, and carbonization. Relations between these criteria and known ethnobotanical properties of the identified plants are statistically analyzed. Results display good evidence of the gathering of edible wild fruits and seeds. Other gathering practices are not documented. Edible fruits and seeds seem to have been gathered mainly from ruderal spring weed communities and, possibly, from forest clearances and hedge communities. Fragmentation appears to be less of a discriminating factor than number of plant remains and carbonization.     

Dietary use of wild plant resources in the Sikkim Himalaya, India

The edible wild plants are greatly valued throughout the Himalayan region and serve as an important source of food for indigenous communities. This paper describes the botanical richness, elevational distribution and dietary use of the edible wild plant resources from the Sikkim Himalaya (Eastern Himalaya), many with promising potential. A total of 190 wild plant species have been screened from the Sikkim Himalaya, this derived from 143 genera and 78 families and accounting for nearly 15% of total edible wild plants resources of India. Of the total, 65% were edible for their fruits, 22% for leaves/shoots, 7% for flowers and 3% for roots/ rhizomes. Nearly 91 wild edible species were recorded from low-hills, 70 from mid-hills and 28 species from high-hill areas. Within Sikkim state, the North and East districts represent maximum diversity of edible wild plants due to the wilderness and inaccessibility to most of the habitats. An average rural family annually consumes nearly 8 types of edible wild plants, and a few species provide over five meals in a season. Selected plants also form a source of earning to a few families that sell them in local markets. It is suggested that the high diversity of edible plants needs to be conserved for future use. Some species may be grown in traditional agroforestry systems and on marginal lands of otherwise low agricultural value. Such measures may help protect wild plant resources in their natural habitats.     

Canopy Openness Enhances Diversity of Ant–Plant Interactions in the Brazilian Amazon Rain Forest

In closed‐canopy tropical forest understory, light availability is a significant determinant of habitat diversity because canopy structure is highly variable in most tropical forests. Consequently, variation in canopy cover affects the composition and distribution of plant species via creating variable light environments. Nevertheless, little is known about how variation in canopy openness structures patterns of plant–animal interactions. Because of the great diversity and dominance of ants in tropical environments, we used ant–plant interactions as a focal network to evaluate how variation in canopy cover influences patterns of plant–insect interactions in the Brazilian Amazon rain forest. We observed that small increases in canopy openness are associated with increased diversity of ant–plant interactions in our study area, and this change is independent of plant or ant species richness. Additionally, we found smaller niche overlap for both ants and plants associated with greater canopy openness. We hypothesize that enhanced light availability increases the breadth of ant foraging sources because variation in light availability gives rise to plant resources of different quality and amounts. Moreover, greater light availability promotes vegetative growth in plants, creating ant foraging ‘bridges’ between plants. In sum, our results highlight the importance of environmental heterogeneity as a determinant of ant–plant interaction diversity in tropical environments.     

Study on Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants Used by the Mongolians in Xilingol Typical Steppe Area*

The local herdsmen were served as informants, methods of interviews and voucher specimen collection and identification have been used to conduct ethnobotanical field investigations on wild edible plants in the Xilingol typical steppe area, Inner Mongolia. The results show that 29 species and two varieties of wild plants used for food and drinks by the Mongolians in Xilingol typical steppe area. The edible parts of the plants are whole plant, aerial parts, roots, stems, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits or/and seeds respectively. Among them, the leaf is the most widely used part. Six categories of food uses based on the mode of folk edible use were established to classify wild food plants, including wild grain, vegetables, fruit, substitute for tea, seasoning, and snacks. Among them, vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used as substitute for tea, and plants used for seasoning. Wild plants are usually eaten raw or cooked by the local people. Raw materials and prepared food from wild plants are preserved through the method of pickling and drying. A distinguishing feature of region and ethnic group is that mutton, beef, fresh milk and yoghourt are necessarily used in cooking dish and making milk tea from wild plants by local Mongolians.     

塔里木荒漠河岸林异质生境物种多样性比较与其测度指标筛选及评价

选择合适的物种多样性测度指标与多样性指数是进行群落多样性研究的基础工作。依据塔里木河上游荒漠河岸林样地调查资料,分别采用重要值、盖度和多度为测度指标比较了反映群落物种丰富度、多样性、均匀度和优势度12种多样性指数与异质生境群落多样性特征,并对多样性指数进行了相关分析与评价。结果表明,荒漠河岸林异质生境群落物种组成种类差异明显,轮南镇胡杨群落物种丰富度与多样性指数最高,水工三连灰胡杨群落多样性最低,土壤水盐的空间异质性是引起荒漠植被空间分布与群落多样性差异的主导因子。表征荒漠群落多样性以重要值和盖度为测度指标优于多度指标,其中以重要值为测度指标来反映群落多样性更为合理。相关与主成分分析表明,均匀度与多样性指数间的相关性高于丰富度与多样性指数,且多样性指数受均匀度、优势度指数受丰富度影响较大,反映出荒漠河岸林群落多样性主要决定于物种分布的均匀程度。12种多样性指数中Margalef丰富度指数（Ma）、Shannon-Weiner多样性指数（H）与Simpson多样性指数（D）能客观真实地反映异质生境荒漠植物群落多样性。同时,针对高度生境异质性的荒漠植物群落,还应综合考虑群落物种组成与生境特征,选择合适的多样性指数组合可更客观地反映荒漠河岸林群落多样性变化。     

Use of native tree species by an hispanic community in Panama

We investigated the use of plants collected in the wild by a small farming community in Central Panama to document the importance of noncultivated plants by tropical, nonforest-dwelling, nonindigenous people. We visited the community to observe what wood was used to build houses and interviewed local people about medicinal and edible plants collected in the wild state. The community reported use of 119 noncultivated plant species, including 108 tree species, three shrubs, two herbs, four lianas, and two vines. The majority (71) of the species were used for building homes. Other products built with wood collected in the wild were diverse kinds of tools, containers, cages, and fences. The second most important use of wild plants, in terms of number of species, was firewood, for which 40 species were mentioned by the community. Other uses included fruit for human consumption (20 species). Most of the species (82 of 119) were collected in secondary forests near the community, whereas another large group (47 species) were collected in mature forest. Fewer species were harvested in shrubby regrowth or from isolated trees in farm land. Nearly all the species (111 of 119) were native to the area, and never cultivated locally, but 15 species were considered especially valuable, and were often protected when found as juveniles. Only six of the species are commonly used in reforestation programs in Panama. We conclude that even hispanic communities in tropical Latin America, living outside the forest, with no Amerindian inhabitants, make frequent use of the great diversity of trees native to the region.     

Effects of forest degradation on butterfly communities in the Gwangneung Forest

This study was carried out to clarify the response of butterfly communities on forest degradation in the Gwangneung Forest, Korea. We monitored butterfly communities with varying degrees of human activities by conducting a line transect twice a month in 2011. A total of 70 species and 4676 individuals of butterflies were observed in four sites: natural forest (NR), two plantation forests, and the Korean National Arboretum (AR). The result on niche breadth, habitat breadth and habitat type of butterfly was not consistent with our predictions. Species richness of habitat type was only significantly different between NF and AR. Species diversity was significantly different among sites. Butterfly diversity associated with landscape patterns based on aerial photographs supported a mosaic concept. A forest management plan to conserve butterfly diversity in forests is necessary to maintain various habitats and to ensure that grasslands are protected.     

舟山市种子植物物种多样性及其分布特征

通过野外调查和查阅文献资料,分析了舟山市种子植物物种组成、区系特点及物种多样性的分布特征。结果表明:舟山市共有野生种子植物1372种,隶属于141科627属;植物区系组成以小型科属为主,生活型以草本植物居多,地理成分广泛而多样,滨海特有植物较多,重点保护植物较少;在10个典型岛屿中,物种丰富度及物种密度的分布极不均匀,南部岛屿的物种丰富度及物种密度相对较高,北部岛屿相对较低;在8种主要森林群落类型中,乔木层、灌木层、草本层中物种丰富度最高的分别是红楠林、香樟林、滨柃灌丛,物种丰富度、Simpson指数和Shannon-Weaver指数表现为灌木层乔木层草本层,Pielou均匀度指数在乔木群落中变化趋势不明显,但在灌丛群落中呈现草本层灌木层的规律。本文通过对舟山市种子植物物种多样性的调查分析,为舟山群岛野生植物资源的研究和保护积累了基础材料,为海岛植物资源的开发和利用提供了理论依据。     

海南岛霸王岭国家重点保护植物的生态位研究

为进一步了解国家重点野生保护植物的生存群落及不同种群利用资源和占据生态空间的能力, 为制定国家重点保护植物种群的保护措施提供依据, 2009-2011年, 对霸王岭有国家重点保护植物分布的70个样地进行群落调查, 研究了霸王岭保护区内12种国家重点保护植物的生态位宽度以及物种间的生态位重叠。结果表明: (1)生态位宽度值从大到小依次为: 土沉香(Aquilaria sinensis)、海南韶子(Nephelium topengii)、普洱茶(Camellia sinensis var. assamica)、油丹(Alseodaphne hainanensis)、海南油杉(Keteleeria hainanensis)、鸡毛松(Podocarpus imbricatus)、海南梧桐(Firmiana hainanensis)、乐东拟单性木兰(Parakmeria lotungensis)、海南粗榧(Cephalotaxus mannii)、香子含笑(Michelia hedyosperma)、粘木(Ixonanthes reticulata)和陆均松(Dacrydium pierrei); (2)物种生态位宽度值的大小与其自身的地理分布范围密切相关, 如: 陆均松、乐东拟单性木兰等生态位宽度较小的原因与其分布的海拔范围狭窄有关。生态位宽度较大的种群对资源的利用能力较强, 与其他物种的生态位重叠一般较大, 如: 生态位宽度较大的普洱茶与海南油杉的生态位重叠值最大, 为0.872, 而一些生态位宽度较小的物种生态位重叠值较高, 如: 香子含笑的生态位宽度较小, 但与海南梧桐的生态位重叠较大, 为0.693。因此, 种群间的生态位重叠值与它们对环境资源利用的相似程度以及物种自身的生物学特性密切相关; (3)香子含笑、粘木等的生态位宽度较小, 而且个体数量较少, 适宜其生存的群落和生境极少, 应该给予更多的关注和优先保护; (4)未来对濒危植物的保护不仅要考虑各物种自身的生物学特性, 还应从植物群落的角度考虑。只有保护好这些濒危植物的生存群落, 如山地雨林等, 才能实现对濒危植物的有效保护。     

A study on the niches of the state’s key protected plants in Bawangling,Hainan Island

Aims An understanding on the living communities of the state’s key protected wild plants and the ability in utilizing resources and occupying ecological spaces by different populations is essential to the protection and propagation of rare and endangered plant species. We use our findings to highlight the knowledge gaps in the conservation strategies for the endangered species.
Methods Field investigations were conducted during 2009-2011. Based on the survey data on 70 forest plots in the Bawangling protected area, the niche breadths and overlaps of 12 species listed as the state’s key protected plants were calculated and analyzed.
Important findings The 12 species, by their niche breadth values in descending order, include Aquilaria sinensis, Nephelium topengii, Camellia sinensis var. assamica, Alseodaphne hainanensis, Keteleeria hainanensis, Podocarpus imbricatus, Firmiana hainanensis, Parakmeria lotungensis, Cephalotaxus mannii, Michelia hedyosperma, Ixonanthes reticulata, Dacrydium pierrei. The niche breadth value of a species is closely related to its range of geographical distribution; both Dacrydium pierrei and Parakmeria lotungensis had a narrow niche breadth corresponding to their narrow ranges of altitudinal distribution. In general, the niche overlap value is higher between species with greater niche breadth; the highest niche overlap value of 0.872 was found between Camellia sinensis var. assamica and Keteleeria hainanensis. However, the niche overlap value between species with smaller niche breadth could also be high; e.g. the niche overlap value was relatively high (0.693) between two species with smaller niche breadth, Michelia hedyosperma and Firmiana hainanensis, indicating that niche overlap value is dependent upon the biological characteristics and requirements for environmental resources of the species of comparison. Some species with low niche breadth values (e.g. Michelia hedyosperma and Ixonanthes reticulata) were found to have smaller populations. Due to lack of suitable community and habitats, these plant species are in dire need of more attention and prioritization for conservation. In conclusion, for the better protection and propagation of these endangered plants in the future, we should combine knowledge of their biological characteristics with that of their living communities such as the montane rainforests, etc.     

COMMUNITY COMPOSITION AND NICHE CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMINANT SPECIES IN THE WIND-BREAKING AND SAND-FIXING FOREST, XINJIANG, CHINA

 以塔里木河下游绿洲外围大型防风固沙林为研究对象, 采用基于Simpson多样性指数的生态位宽度公式和Pianka生态位重叠测度公式, 在群落梯度上按重要值大小筛选出优势种群进行生态位分析, 探讨这些群落在4~7年的发育过程中生态位变化特点。结果表明: 1)经过4年的发育, 植物种组成简单的人工防风固沙林由于乡土植物种的侵入, 演变成为人工-天然植物群落, 不同地段群落中的优势种群发生了较大的变化, 优势种群共7个。芦苇(Phragmites communis)、花花柴(Karelinia caspica)和盐生草(Halogeton glomeratus)这3个乡土植物种侵入后逐渐成为优势种群, 而原人工群落主要建群种宁夏枸杞(Lycium barbarum)种群逐渐消退; 7年后, 优势种群共6个。由于水分条件的变化, 多枝柽柳(Tamarix ramosissima)成为优势种群, 而芦苇降为亚优势种群, 盐生草种群发生消退; 2)人工-天然植物群落中优势种群以耐旱耐盐碱植物占主要优势向占绝对优势的方向发展, 其生态位宽度变化幅度为0.56~0.86, 生态位宽度排序为芦苇>花花柴>头状沙拐枣(Calligonum caput-medusae)>沙枣(Elaeagnus angustifolia)>胡杨(Populus euphratica)>多枝柽柳>梭梭(Haloxylon ammodendron)>盐生草; 3)生态位重叠最大值发生在头状沙拐枣和胡杨种群之间; 4)在乡土植物种向人工群落侵入的过程中, 生态位宽度较大(或较小)的种群, 它们所构成的种对间生态位重叠既有较大的, 也有较小的, 可见生态位宽度与生态位重叠程度无相关性; 表明在现阶段群落演变中, 植物对环境资源存在着激烈的竞争和高的空间异质性。     

坡向因子对黄土高原草地群落功能多样性的影响

研究群落水平上的植物功能性状特征及功能多样性随坡向的变化规律,对认识不同坡向上的植物群落形成过程具有重要意义。以黄土高原不同坡向上的自然草地群落为研究对象,比较研究了植物功能性状(株高和比叶面积)和功能多样性测度指标(功能丰富度、功能均匀度和功能离散度)随坡向的变化规律。研究结果显示:(1)阴坡的株高和比叶面积显著高于其他坡向;(2)一元性状的功能丰富度在不同坡向间均无显著差异;阴坡和半阴坡的多元性状功能丰富度显著高于阳坡;(3)阴坡的株高功能均匀度显著高于半阳坡,而比叶面积功能均匀度在各坡向的差异并不显著;多元性状功能均匀度在不同坡向差异显著,阴坡最高,半阳坡最低;(4)阴坡和半阴坡的株高功能离散度显著高于阳坡和半阳坡,而半阴坡的比叶面积功能离散度显著高于阳坡;半阴坡的多元性状功能离散度Rao指数显著高于阳坡。研究结果暗示了,在阴坡和半阴坡上,植物对群落内的生态位空间和资源利用更充分,种间竞争强度较低,不同物种之间生态位高度分化;而在阳坡和半阳坡上,由于水分等条件的限制植物可占据的生态位空间有限,导致其对占据的生态位空间使用不足,物种间资源竞争较强烈。在群落水平上,研究地区的植物功能性状及功能多样性随坡向的规律性变化,反映了黄土高原植被群落构建过程中坡向因子对功能性状的筛选效应。该研究结果对该区的植被恢复重建的物种选择及植被布局规划具有重要实践意义。     

Distribution and abundance of vines along the light gradient in a southern temperate rain forest

Question: Are vines light‐demanding species? Location: Temperate evergreen rain forest of southern Chile (40°39′S, 72°11′W). Methods: In 45 plots of 25 m² distributed in treefall canopy gaps, secondary forest stands and old‐growth forest (15 plots per light environment), all climbing and non‐supported vines were counted and identified to species level, and canopy openness was quantified using hemispherical photographs. Vine abundance and diversity (species richness and Simpson's index) were compared in the three light environments and similarity between vine communities was estimated using Jaccard's similarity coefficient. We also determined the relationship between light niche breadth and local dominance at the species level. Results: In total there were 2510 vine individuals of 14 species. Canopy openness was significantly different in the three light environments. Species richness, diversity, community composition and density of vines were similar in treefall gaps, secondary and old‐growth forest. Of the seven more common vine species, which accounted for 91% of all vines, three had even distribution, two were more abundant in the shaded understorey, and two had higher density in well‐lit sites. Local dominance of vine species and niche breadth were not significantly associated. Conclusions: Our study in a temperate rain forest questions the widespread notion of vines as pioneer‐like species, which may be a consequence of the abundance of some lianas in disturbed sites of tropical forests. Functional arguments are needed to justify a general hypothesis on light requirements of vines, which constitute a vast group of species.