制备动物乳腺生物反应器的问题和对策

动物乳腺是理想的用于生产复杂的生物活性蛋白的生物反应器。目前,显微注射仍然是制备大型转基因动物的主要方法,但外源基因整合效率低下和位置效应还需要解决。要解决这两个问题,人们探索了几种策略。尽管使用转染的体细胞和基因打靶的体细胞作为核移植的供体的动物克隆技术还在改善中,但是这一技术是有应用前景的转基因牲畜的方法。在转基因载体中使用LCR和MAR序列可显著提高表达水平和转基因效率。YAC、BAC作为理想的转基因载体可能因为它们能容纳基因座的所有元件。虽然这些技术和方法还存在不完善之处,但其发展将极大地提高动物乳腺生物反应器的整合率和表达水平。     

酵母人工染色体转基因研究及其应用

酵母人工染色体(Yeast Artificial Chromosome,YAC)克隆的基因组大片段(YACs),在转基因动物中有与内源的动物模型及生物反应器等转基因研究中占有独特的地位。     

人工染色体研究进展

人工染色体是人工构建的含有天然染色体基本功能单位的载体系统总称。人工染色体是非常优良的载体,具有超大的接受外源片段能力。由于不用整合到宿主基因组中,因此不会引起宿主基因的插入失活,及抑制转基因表达的位置效应。人工染色体已经从最初的酵母人工染色体(Yeast artificial chromosome,YAC)发展到细菌人工染色体(Bacterial artificial chromosome,BAC),再扩展到人类人工染色体(Human artificial chromosome,HAC)和植物人工染色体(Plant artificial chromosome,PAC)。文章就这4种人工染色体,尤其是植物人工染色体的研究进展和应用局限进行综述。目前,YAC和BAC已经广泛应用于基因组图谱制作、序列测定和基因克隆;HAC和PAC在基因治疗、外源医用蛋白的生产、新型优质高产高抗转基因作物构建中显现出广阔的应用前景。随着合成生物学的高速发展,美国科学家报道合成了一个"人造生命"。但是,和人工染色体一样,所谓的"人造生命",都是应用最新的基因工程技术,将不同的生命基础元件拼接组装而成,脱离了细胞环境并不能够自由存在。     

乳蛋白调控元件和乳腺表达载体的研究进展

利用转基因动物乳腺生物反应器生产重组蛋白是一项极具潜力和开发价值的生物技术,但成功的例子并不多,主要是由于乳蛋白的表达调控机制还未完全阐明,构建的表达载体不足以克服位置效应的影响,使得外源基因的表达难以预期。目前乳腺生物反应器研究的热点是对乳蛋白表达调控元件进行更深入的研究,构建基于酵母人工染色体、细菌人工染色体的经过修饰的乳蛋白基因座载体。简要综述了乳蛋白表达调控元件和表达载体的研究进展。     

细菌人工染色体的修饰及其转基因应用研究

细菌人工染色体(Bacterial Artificial Chromosome,BAC)是一种新发展起来的DNA载体系统,它具有容量大、遗传特性稳定、易于操作等优点.广泛的应用于基因组文库构建、基因功能分析等方面.随着基因组测序工程的实施与完成,如何对包含完整基因信息的特定细菌人工染色体进行有目的修饰已成为功能基因组学研究的一个重要环节.BAC载体转基因技术可能成为避开基因打靶获得高效表达的转基因生物的另一途径.本文介绍了BAC作为转基因载体的几种修饰方法及其在转基因研究上的应用.     

细菌人工染色体的研究和应用

细菌人工染色体 (Bacterialartificialchromosome ,BAC)是第二代大片段DNA的克隆载体系统。因其嵌合率低 ,遗传稳定性好 ,重组DNA容易分离和制备 ,转化效率高等 ,弥补了YAC的不足 ,很快在基因组研究中处于中心地位。近年来 ,已有多种BAC载体被构建出来 ,这些BAC载体在复杂基因组大片段文库的构建 ,基因的图位克隆 ,基因组物理图谱的构建 ,基因和基因组测序 ,基因组织结构分析 ,染色体组织和进化 ,以及基因的遗传转化和调控研究中得到了广泛的应用。     

基因组细菌人工染色体文库(BAC)的构建及应用

细菌人工染色体 (BAC)是一种承载DNA大片段的克隆载体系统 ,用于人、动物和植物基因组文库构建。BAC具有插入片断大、嵌合率低、遗传稳定性好、易于操作等优点。BAC文库的构建是基因组较大的真核生物基因组学研究的重要基础 ,可用于真核生物重要基因及全基因组物理作图、重要性状基因的图位克隆、基因结构及功能分析。本文主要综述了细菌人工染色体的构建与其鉴定 ,及其在物理图谱构建、图位克隆、转基因技术等研究上的应用。     

细菌人工染色体文库的构建及应用

细菌人工染色体（BAC）是第二代大片段DNA的克隆载体系统,具有容量大、嵌合率低、遗传特性稳定、转化效率高、插入片段易回收、操作简便等优点,因而被广泛应用于基因组较大的真核生物基因组研究中,并发挥着前所未有的重要作用。本文综述了BAC的发展,利用此载体构建基因组文库的程序和鉴定方法,及其在物理图谱构建、图位克隆、基因组测序、转基因技术等研究中的应用。     

人工染色体

人工染色体丁志山,沃兴德（浙江中医学院分子医学研究所杭州３１０００９）基因是指ＤＮＡ分子上具有一定遗传学效应的特定核苷酸顺序,其载体是染色体。基因工程在初期只能操纵单个基因,而现在用同样的方法则可创建整个染色体——人工染色体,所谓的人工染色体即是人工...     

BAC及其转基因研究进展

本文综述了细菌人工染色体（Bacterial Artificial Chromsomes,BAC)的构建、物理图谱制作方法及其靶位精细操作策略的研究进展。同时,简要介绍了BAC转基因在基因功能以及基因表达与调控研究中的应用。     

High-level expressing YAC vector for transgenic animal bioreactors

The position effect is one major problem in the production of transgenic animals as mammary gland bioreactors. In the present study, we introduced the human growth hormone (hGH) gene into 210-kb human alpha-lactalbumin position-independent YAC vectors using homologous recombination and produced transgenic rats via microinjection of YAC DNA into rat embryos. The efficiency of producing transgenic rats with the YAC vector DNA was the same as that using plasmid constructs. All analyzed transgenic rats had one copy of the transgene and produced milk containing a high level of hGH (0.25-8.9 mg/ml). In transgenic rats with the YAC vector in which the human alpha-lactalbumin gene was replaced with the hGH gene, tissue specificity of hGH mRNA was the same as that of the endogenous rat alpha-lactalbumin gene. Thus, the 210-kb human alpha-lactalbumin YAC is a useful vector for high-level expression of foreign genes in the milk of transgenic animals.     

Size Matters: Use of YACs,BACs and PACs in Transgenic Animals

In 1993, several groups, working independently, reported the successful generation of transgenic mice with yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) using standard techniques. The transfer of these large fragments of cloned genomic DNA correlated with optimal expression levels of the transgenes, irrespective of their location in the host genome. Thereafter, other groups confirmed the advantages of YAC transgenesis and position-independent and copy number-dependent transgene expression were demonstrated in most cases. The transfer of YACs to the germ line of mice has become popular in many transgenic facilities to guarantee faithful expression of transgenes. This technique was rapidly exported to livestock and soon transgenic rabbits, pigs and other mammals were produced with YACs. Transgenic animals were also produced with bacterial or P1-derived artificial chromosomes (BACs/PACs) with similar success. The use of YACs, BACs and PACs in transgenesis has allowed the discovery of new genes by complementation of mutations, the identification of key regulatory sequences within genomic loci that are crucial for the proper expression of genes and the design of improved animal models of human genetic diseases. Transgenesis with artificial chromosomes has proven useful in a variety of biological, medical and biotechnological applications and is considered a major breakthrough in the generation of transgenic animals. In this report, we will review the recent history of YAC/BAC/PAC-transgenic animals indicating their benefits and the potential problems associated with them. In this new era of genomics, the generation and analysis of transgenic animals carrying artificial chromosome-type transgenes will be fundamental to functionally identify and understand the role of new genes, included within large pieces of genomes, by direct complementation of mutations or by observation of their phenotypic consequences.     

Improving the generation of genomic-type transgenic mice by ICSI

Transgenes included in genomic-type constructs, such as yeast artificial chromosomes (YAC), P1-derived artificial chromosomes, or bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC), are normally correctly expressed, according to the endogenous expression pattern of the homologous locus, because their large size usually ensures the inclusion of all regulatory elements required for proper gene expression. The use of these large genomic-type transgenes is therefore the method of choice to overcome most position effects, commonly associated with standard-type transgenes, and to guarantee the faithful transgene expression. However, in spite of the different methods available, including pronuclear microinjection and the use of embryonic stem cells as vehicles for genomic transgenes, the generation of transgenic animals with BACs and, particularly, with YACs can be demanding, because of the low efficiencies requiring extensive microinjection sessions and/or higher number of oocytes. Recently, we have explored the use of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) into metaphase II oocytes as an alternative method for the generation of YAC transgenic mice. Our results suggest that the use of transgenic strategies based on ICSI significantly enhances the efficiency of YAC transgenesis by at least one order of magnitude.     

Towards map-based cloning of the barley stem rust resistance genes Rpg1 and rpg4 using rice as an intergenomic cloning vehicle

The barley stem rust resistance genes Rpg1 and rpg4 were mapped in barley on chromosomes 1P and 7M, respectively and the syntenous rice chromosomes identified as 6P and 3P by mapping common probes in barley and rice. Rice yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) and cosmid clones were used to isolate probes mapping to the barley Rpg1 region. The rice BAC isolated with the pM13 probe was a particularly excellent source of probes. A high-resolution map of the Rpg1 region was established with 1400 gametes yielding a map density of 3.6 markers per 0.1 cM. A detailed physical map was established for the rice BAC fragment containing the Rpg1-flanking markers pM13 and B24. This fragment covers a barley genetic distance of 0.6 cM and a rice DNA physical distance of ca. 70 kb. The distribution of barley cross-overs in relation to the rice DNA physical distances was extremely uneven. The barley genetic distance between the pM13 marker and Rpg1 was 0.1 cM per ca. 55 kb, while on the proximal side it was 0.5 cm per ca. 15 kb. Three probes from the distal end of the pM13 BAC mapped 3.0 cm proximal of Rpg1 and out of synteny with rice. These experiments confirm the validity of using large insert rice clones as probe sources to saturate small barley (and other large genome cereals) genome regions with markers. They also establish a note of caution that even in regions of high microsynteny, there may be small DNA fragments that have transposed and are no longer in syntenous positions.     

Transgenic animal bioreactors

The production of recombinant proteins is one of the major successes of biotechnology. Animal cells are required to synthesize proteins with the appropriate post-translational modifications. Transgenic animals are being used for this purpose. Milk, egg white, blood, urine, seminal plasma and silk worm cocoon from transgenic animals are candidates to be the source of recombinant proteins at an industrial scale. Although the first recombinant protein produced by transgenic animals is expected to be in the market in 2000, a certain number of technical problems remain to be solved before the various systems are optimized. Although the generation of transgenic farm animals has become recently easier mainly with the technique of animal cloning using transfected somatic cells as nuclear donor, this point remains a limitation as far as cost is concerned. Numerous experiments carried out for the last 15 years have shown that the expression of the transgene is predictable only to a limited extent. This is clearly due to the fact that the expression vectors are not constructed in an appropriate manner. This undoubtedly comes from the fact that all the signals contained in genes have not yet been identified. Gene constructions thus result sometime in poorly functional expression vectors. One possibility consists in using long genomic DNA fragments contained in YAC or BAC vectors. The other relies on the identification of the major important elements required to obtain a satisfactory transgene expression. These elements include essentially gene insulators, chromatin openers, matrix attached regions, enhancers and introns. A certain number of proteins having complex structures (formed by several subunits, being glycosylated, cleaved, carboxylated...) have been obtained at levels sufficient for an industrial exploitation. In other cases, the mammary cellular machinery seems insufficient to promote all the post-translational modifications. The addition of genes coding for enzymes involved in protein maturation has been envisaged and successfully performed in one case. Furin gene expressed specifically in the mammary gland proved to able to cleave native human protein C with good efficiency. In a certain number of cases, the recombinant proteins produced in milk have deleterious effects on the mammary gland function or in the animals themselves. This comes independently from ectopic expression of the transgenes and from the transfer of the recombinant proteins from milk to blood. One possibility to eliminate or reduce these side-effects may be to use systems inducible by an exogenous molecule such as tetracycline allowing the transgene to be expressed only during lactation and strictly in the mammary gland. The purification of recombinant proteins from milk is generally not particularly difficult. This may not be the case, however, when the endogenous proteins such as serum albumin or antibodies are abundantly present in milk. This problem may be still more crucial if proteins are produced in blood. Among the biological contaminants potentially present in the recombinant proteins prepared from transgenic animals, prions are certainly those raising the major concern. The selection of animals chosen to generate transgenics on one hand and the elimination of the potentially contaminated animals, thanks to recently defined quite sensitive tests may reduce the risk to an extremely low level. The available techniques to produce pharmaceutical proteins in milk can be used as well to optimize milk composition of farm animals, to add nutriceuticals in milk and potentially to reduce or even eliminate some mammary infectious diseases. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

大片段克隆载体研究进展

DNA克隆技术是分子生物学研究中一项重要的技术手段。自第一个质粒载体pSC1 0 1作为克隆载体以来 ,随着分子生物学技术的发展 ,克隆载体的整体结构、容载能力和转化效率都有了很大的改善。尤其是人类基因组计划的实施 ,产生了YAC和BAC克隆体系。随着植物基因组计划的进行 ,又产生了既能够克隆大片段DNA又能够将候选克隆直接通过农杆菌介导进行功能互补实验的载体。综述了几种常用大片段克隆载体YAC、BAC、BIBAC、PAC和TAC的特点及其应用 ,并对克隆载体的发展作了展望。