流感病毒神经氨酸酶的表达及其在药物筛选中的应用

A型流感病毒H5N1神经氨酸酶奥司他韦敏感型及耐药突变型基因经优化后,克隆于pcDNA4/TO 表达载体,并转染T-REx293 建立稳定细胞株,经四环素诱导能特异表达神经氨酸酶,其活性被特异性抑制剂奥司他韦所抑制。利用该稳定细胞株制备的神经氨酸酶,对3000多种天然产物和中药提取物进行了筛选,结果显示黄芩甙和黄芩素对奥司他韦敏感型神经氨酸酶和耐药型神经氨酸酶具有相似的抑制作用。该神经氨酸酶制备方法安全、简便、稳定,有利于建立神经氨酸酶抑制剂的高通量筛选方法。A型流感病毒H5N1神经氨酸酶奥司他韦敏感型及耐药突变型基因经优化后,克隆于pcDNA4/TO 表达载体,并转染T-REx293 建立稳定细胞株,经四环素诱导能特异表达神经氨酸酶,其活性被特异性抑制剂奥司他韦所抑制。利用该稳定细胞株制备的神经氨酸酶,对3000多种天然产物和中药提取物进行了筛选,结果显示黄芩甙和黄芩素对奥司他韦敏感型神经氨酸酶和耐药型神经氨酸酶具有相似的抑制作用。该神经氨酸酶制备方法安全、简便、稳定,有利于建立神经氨酸酶抑制剂的高通量筛选方法。     

流感病毒复制过程中神经氨酸酶的免疫荧光特点

用二种抗甲型流感病毒神经氨酸酶的单克隆抗体研究流感病毒在猴肾细胞内复制过程中病毒神经氨酸酶的免疫荧光特点,结果阐明了神经氨酸酶的细胞内过程及其发生的构象改变,并观察了抗神经氨酸酶单克隆抗体对病毒穿入细胞的影响。     

基于配体捕捞结合HR-ESI-Q-TOF-MS快速鉴定和分离蛇莓的神经氨酸酶抑制剂

流感是一种急性呼吸道疾病,由甲型、乙型和丙型等流感病毒引起。其中,甲型和乙型流感病毒可导致季节性流行甚至全球大流行。流感病毒神经氨酸酶(NA)是病毒复制、传播和发病机制中的关键酶,因而研发神经氨酸酶抑制剂(NAIs)是对抗流感感染的有效途径之一。在中国,许多用于清热解毒的中药单独使用或作为中药配方来治疗流感显示出良好的疗效,但如何从中药中快速分离出活性物质是一个难题。     

流感病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂的筛选

以神经氨酸酶为药物靶点筛选神经氨酸酶抑制剂, 是研究和开发抗流感病毒药物的重要途径. 应用虚拟药物筛选方法, 从化合物数据库中选出部分待测化合物, 然后应用已建立的 神经氨酸酶抑制剂的高通量筛选模型, 检测了这些化合物的抑制活性, 从中发现了3个活性较高、结构新颖的化合物, 其IC50在0.1~3 μmol/L之间, 这些活性化合物的结构特点, 对于新型神经氨酸酶抑制剂的设计与开发, 将提供重要的信息指导. 流感病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂的筛选结果表明, 虚拟筛选技术与高通量筛选技术的合理结合, 将有利于促进药物筛选与药物发现.     

流感病毒神经氨酸酶广谱抑制多肽的筛选研究

以纯化的流感病毒颗粒H1N1、H3N2为靶点对噬菌体展示的随机12肽库进行了筛选。经ELISA、神经氨酸酶抑制活性鉴定,获得52个阳性噬菌体克隆。根据测序和氨基酸序列分析,挑选出不同克隆间同源性最高的6条多肽进行化学合成。神经氨酸酶抑制活性实验显示,6条多肽中54-N1和69-N2的抑制活性最强,对N1、N2和乙型流感病毒三种流感病毒神经氨酸酶均有明显的抑制活性,54-N1的IC50值为7.486~14.693μmol/L,69-N2的IC50值为6.605~13.007μmol/L。同时,54-N1和69-N2可抑制流感病毒在MDCK细胞中的生长。病毒空斑抑制实验显示,54-N1和69-N2可明显抑制空斑形成的大小和数目。通过分析,54-N1的IC50值为18.38~31.76μmol/L,69-N2的IC50值为16.56~25.49μmol/L。两条多肽的浓度在高达10mmol/L时仍对细胞无任何毒性。54-N1和69-N2作为新的流感病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂,与现有NA抑制剂Oseltamivir进行了比较和讨论,为进一步研制局部应用的广谱抗流感病毒的鼻腔喷雾剂奠定了基础。     

流感病毒神经氨酸酶不同区域的作用

神经氨酸酶(NA)是流感病毒主要表面糖蛋白之一,属于Ⅱ型膜蛋白,其单体为蘑菇形状.由胞内域、极性跨膜区、柄部、头部4部分组成,在膜上以四聚体形式存在.神经氨酸酶在流感病毒中的功能是切去感染细胞和血凝素上的N-乙酰神经氨酸,以利于子代病毒离开感染细胞,继续感染新细胞.NA的不同区域在流感病毒生活周期中具有不同的作用.NA胞内域在流感病毒生活周期中具有控制病毒颗粒形状的作用;NA跨膜区在将NA转移至内质网中起信号作用和将NA固定在膜上的作用;NA柄部连接NA的头部与跨膜区,使NA 头部远离病毒膜,以利于NA与底物结合;NA头部包含有糖基化位点、NA酶活性中心和抗原位点.对这些不同区域功能研究的深入,将有利于对神经氨酸酶在流感病毒传播中的作用的了解,并对流感病毒的预防或治疗等具有实际意义.     

基于分子对接技术筛选中草药中潜在的H1N1病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂

甲型H1N1流感病毒是一种高度接触性急性呼吸道传染病,给人类健康造成了极大威胁。作为一个已经被证明的抗流感药物靶点,神经氨酸酶在流感病毒复制和传播中发挥重要作用,并且其活性中心的氨基酸组成高度保守。本研究中,我们使用分子对接技术筛选从中草药小分子数据库中筛选神经氨酸酶潜在的抑制剂,结果得到4个亲和力高于奥司他韦(Osel-tamivir)的化合物,并确定了他们的中草药来源。为从草药中提取,设计以及实验合成新的神经氨酸酶抑制剂提供了一定的依据和指导。     

从噬菌体随机肽库中筛选流感病毒神经氨酸酶的抑制多肽

目的:从噬菌体呈现12肽库中筛选与流感病毒神经氨酸酶特异性结合的肽。方法:以甲三型流感病毒裂解疫苗原液为靶分子,经过3轮生物淘选,从噬菌体随机肽库中筛选与之结合的噬菌体。用ELISA方法鉴定噬菌体克隆与靶分子的结合力,用荧光方法测定噬菌体克隆对流感病毒A/Sydney/5/97(H3N2)神经氨酸酶的抑制活性。对筛选到的阳性克隆进行DNA序列测定并推导出相应的氨基酸序列。结果:经过3轮筛选后,42个噬菌体克隆与靶分子有高度亲和力,23个噬菌体克隆对流感病毒A/Sydney/5/97(H3N2)神经氨酸酶有抑制活性。对27个噬菌体克隆的测序结果表明,分别有10个和2个克隆的序列是一致的,其氨基酸序列分别为KSLSRHDHIHHH和WPRHHHSASVQT。结论:通过噬菌体肽库筛选到抑制流感病毒神经氨酸酶的12肽,为进一步研究对流感病毒神经氨酸酶有抑制活性的分子药物奠定了基础。     

流感病毒血凝素基因、神经氨酸酶基因在小鼠中的免疫效果观察

流感病毒血凝素基因,神经氨酸酶基因免疫BALB／c小鼠,获得特异阳性抗体反应,抗体滴度与基因免疫量呈正相关性,各实验组免疫小鼠抗同型流感病毒攻击存活率为100％,血凝素基因免疫小鼠抗异型流感病毒攻击存活率为100％,神经氨酸酶基因免疫小鼠抗异型流感病毒攻击存活率为75％,血凝素基因与神经氨酸酶基因联合免疫小鼠抗异型流感病毒攻击存活率为100％。     

基于结构的抗流感病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂的设计和研发

流行性感冒是由流感病毒引起的急性呼吸道传染病。2009年暴发的甲型H1N1大流感在世界范围内引起了极大的恐慌并造成了巨大的经济损失,预防和控制新型流感成为科学家们研究的重点和难点。由于抗原变异频繁．疫苗研发滞后．使得针对流感病毒蛋白保守结构设计的靶向性、广谱药物的研制十分紧迫。流感病毒囊膜蛋白神经氨酸酶精细结构的解析,为设计合成新型抗流感药物提供了基础,对于流感的预防和治疗具有重要意义。文章主要对以结构为基础的抗流感病毒神经氨酸酶抑制剂．如达菲和瑞乐沙等的设计和研发进行回顾总结,强调结构对于靶向性药物设计的重要作用．希望通过此文讨论新药研发的可行方向。     

Shift in oligosaccharide specificities of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase of influenza B viruses resistant to neuraminidase inhibitors

Influenza virus neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs), currently used as anti-influenza drugs, can lead to the appearance of drug-resistant variants. Resistance to NAIs appears due to mutations in the active site of the neuraminidase (NA) molecule that decrease the NA enzymatic activity and sometimes in the hemagglutinin (HA) that decrease its affinity for cell receptors and, therefore, reduce the requirement for NA activity in releasing mature virions from infected cells. Using a set of sialo-oligosaccharides, we evaluated changes in the receptor-binding specificity of the HA and substrate specificity of the NA of influenza B viruses that had acquired resistance to NAIs. The oligosaccharide specificity of two pairs of field influenza B viruses, namely: i) B/Memphis/20/96 and its NAI-resistant variant, B/Memphis/20-152K/96, containing mutation R152K in the NA and 5 amino acid substitutions in the HA1, and ii) B/Hong Kong/45/2005 and its NAI-resistant variant B/Hong Kong/36/2005, containing a single R371K mutation in the NA, was evaluated. Wild type viruses bound strictly to a “human type” receptor, α2-6-sialo-oligosaccharide 6`SLN, but desialylated it is approximately 8 times less efficiently than the α2-3 sialosaccharides. Both drug-resistant viruses demonstrated the ability to bind to “avian type” receptors, α2-3 sialo-oligosaccharides (such as 3`SLN), whereas their affinity for 6`SLN was noticeably reduced in comparison with corresponding wild type viruses. Thus, the development of the NAI resistance in the studied influenza B viruses was accompanied by a readjustment of HA-NA oligosaccharide specificities.     

Importance of neuraminidase active-site residues to the neuraminidase inhibitor resistance of influenza viruses

Neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) are antivirals designed to target conserved residues at the neuraminidase (NA) enzyme active site in influenza A and B viruses. The conserved residues that interact with NAIs are under selective pressure, but only a few have been linked to resistance. In the A/Wuhan/359/95 (H3N2) recombinant virus background, we characterized seven charged, conserved NA residues (R118, R371, E227, R152, R224, E276, and D151) that directly interact with the NAIs but have not been reported to confer resistance to NAIs. These NA residues were replaced with amino acids that possess side chains having similar properties to maintain their original charge. The NA mutations we introduced significantly decreased NA activity compared to that of the A/Wuhan/359/95 recombinant wild-type and R292K (an NA mutation frequently reported to confer resistance) viruses, which were analyzed for comparison. However, the recombinant viruses differed in replication efficiency when we serially passaged them in vitro; the growth of the R118K and E227D viruses was most impaired. The R224K, E276D, and R371K mutations conferred resistance to both zanamivir and oseltamivir, while the D151E mutation reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir only (approximately 10-fold) and the R152K mutation did not alter susceptibility to either drug. Because the R224K mutation was genetically unstable and the emergence of the R371K mutation in the N2 subtype is statistically unlikely, our results suggest that only the E276D mutation is likely to emerge under selective pressure. The results of our study may help to optimize the design of NAIs.     

Molecular Surveillance of Antiviral Drug Resistance of Influenza A/H3N2 Virus in Singapore, 2009-2013

Adamantanes and neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) are two classes of antiviral drugs available for the chemoprophylaxis and treatment of influenza infections. To determine the frequency of drug resistance in influenza A/H3N2 viruses in Singapore, large-scale sequencing of neuraminidase (NA) and matrix protein (MP) genes was performed directly without initial culture amplification. 241 laboratory-confirmed influenza A/H3N2 clinical samples, collected between May 2009 and November 2013 were included. In total, 229 NA (95%) and 241 MP (100%) complete sequences were obtained. Drug resistance mutations in the NA and MP genes were interpreted according to published studies. For the NAIs, a visual inspection of the aligned NA sequences revealed no known drug resistant genotypes (DRGs). For the adamantanes, the well-recognised S31N DRG was identified in all 241 MP genes. In addition, there was an increasing number of viruses carrying the combination of D93G+Y155F+D251V (since May 2013) or D93G (since March 2011) mutations in the NA gene. However, in-vitro NAI testing indicated that neither D93G+Y155F+D251V nor D93G alone conferred any changes in NAI susceptibility. Lastly, an I222T mutation in the NA gene that has previously been reported to cause oseltamivir-resistance in influenza A/H1N1/2009, B, and A/H5N1, was detected from a treatment-naïve patient. Further in-vitro NAI testing is required to confirm the effect of this mutation in A/H3N2 virus.     

海南省2016-2018年A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒基因特性分析

2009年A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒在墨西哥暴发,之后在全世界流行。为了解海南省2016-2018年A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒流行态势,分析血凝素(HA)与神经氨酸酶(NA)基因遗传进化特征与变异情况,本研究从中国流感监测信息系统获取海南省2016-2018年流感病毒病原学监测数据,选取5家流感监测网络实验室分离鉴定的37株A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感毒株进行HA与NA基因测序,利用MEGA 10.1.8构建HA与NA基因种系进化树,并分析其氨基酸变异情况。结果显示,2016-2018年共出现3次A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒活动高峰。2017年10月份以后的分离株(4/8)与2018年大部分分离株(21/22)独立于疫苗株A/Michigan/45/2015聚为一个小支,发生20余处HA与NA氨基酸位点变异。与疫苗株A/California/7/2009(2010-2016)相比,2016-2018年流感病毒分离株在HA基因抗原决定簇上发生7处氨基酸变异并有一个潜在糖基化位点,未发现HA基因受体结合位点变异与NA基因耐药性变异。本研究提示,2016-2018年,A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒逐步发生规律性进化,氨基酸变异频率有增加趋势,今后应持续加强流感病毒病原学监测,密切追踪A(H1N1)pdm09亚型流感病毒基因变异情况,为科学防控提供理论依据。     

Analysis of oseltamivir resistance substitutions in influenza virus glycoprotein neuraminidase using a lentivirus-based surrogate assay system

Influenza A virus poses a great threat to global health, and oseltamivir (trade marked as Tamiflu), which targets influenza surface glycoprotein neuraminidase (NA), is used clinically as a major anti-influenza treatment. However, certain substitutions in NA can render an influenza virus resistant to this drug. In this study, using a lentiviral pseudotyping system, which alleviates the safety concerns of studying highly pathogenic influenza viruses such as avian influenza H5N1, that utilizes influenza surface glycoproteins (hemagglutinin or HA, and NA) and an HIV-core combined with a luciferase reporter gene as a surrogate assay, we first assessed the functionality of NA by measuring pseudovirion release in the absence or presence of oseltamivir. We demonstrated that oseltamivir displays a dose-dependent inhibition on NA activity. In contrast, a mutant NA (H274Y) is more resistant to oseltamivir treatment. In addition, the effects of several previously reported substitution NA mutants were examined as well. Our results demonstrate that this lentivirus-based pseudotyping system provides a quick, safe, and effective way to assess resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors. And we believe that as new mutations appear in influenza isolates, their impact on the effectiveness of current and future anti-NA can be quickly and reliably evaluated by this assay.     

I223R Mutation in Influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 Neuraminidase Confers Reduced Susceptibility to Oseltamivir and Zanamivir and Enhanced Resistance with H275Y

Background

Resistance of pandemic A(H1N1)2009 (H1N1pdm09) virus to neuraminidase inhibitors (NAIs) has remained limited. A new mutation I223R in the neuraminidase (NA) of H1N1pdm09 virus has been reported along with H275Y in immunocompromised patients. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of I223R on oseltamivir and zanamivir susceptibility.

Methods

The NA enzymatic characteristics and susceptibility to NAIs of viruses harbouring the mutations I223R and H275Y alone or in combination were analyzed on viruses produced by reverse genetics and on clinical isolates collected from an immunocompromised patient with sustained influenza H1N1pdm09 virus shedding and treated by oseltamivir (days 0–15) and zanamivir (days 15–25 and 70–80).

Results

Compared with the wild type, the NA of recombinant viruses and clinical isolates with H275Y or I223R mutations had about two-fold reduced affinity for the substrate. The H275Y and I223R isolates showed decreased susceptibility to oseltamivir (246-fold) and oseltamivir and zanamivir (8.9- and 4.9-fold), respectively. Reverse genetics assays confirmed these results and further showed that the double mutation H275Y and I223R conferred enhanced levels of resistance to oseltamivir and zanamivir (6195- and 15.2-fold). In the patient, six days after initiation of oseltamivir therapy, the mutation H275Y conferring oseltamivir resistance and the I223R mutation were detected in the NA. Mutations were detected concomitantly from day 6–69 but molecular cloning did not show any variant harbouring both mutations. Despite cessation of NAI treatment, the mutation I223R persisted along with additional mutations in the NA and the hemagglutinin.

Conclusions

Reduced susceptibility to both oseltamivir and zanamivir was conferred by the I223R mutation which potentiated resistance to both NAIs when associated with the H275Y mutation in the NA. Concomitant emergence of the I223R and H275Y mutations under oseltamivir treatment underlines the importance of close monitoring of treated patients especially those immunocompromised.     

Molecular and genetic analysis of influenza A viruses isolated in Russia, based on the neuraminidase and M2 protein gene sequence

The results of molecular analysis of 15 influenza A(H3N2) and 17-A(H1N1) epidemic strains isolated in the Russian Federation in 1995-2007 are described. The analysis on the M2 and neuraminidase influenza A virus genes was performed. The M2 sequences analysis among the remantadin resistant viruses demonstrated the S31N substitution in all strains. Besides S31N substitution, additional mutations were detected in both proteins. Mutations associated with S31N substitution were detected in each virus subtype, which may be considered as new markers for the identification of remantadin-resistant strains. The sequencing of the NA segments from all viruses showed no amino acid substitutions known to cause resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors, which indicates susceptibility to NA inhibitors among the strains.     

Improvement of influenza A/Fujian/411/02 (H3N2) virus growth in embryonated chicken eggs by balancing the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activities, using reverse genetics

The H3N2 influenza A/Fujian/411/02-like virus strains that circulated during the 2003-2004 influenza season caused influenza epidemics. Most of the A/Fujian/411/02 virus lineages did not replicate well in embryonated chicken eggs and had to be isolated originally by cell culture. The molecular basis for the poor replication of A/Fujian/411/02 virus was examined in this study by the reverse genetics technology. Two antigenically related strains that replicated well in embryonated chicken eggs, A/Sendai-H/F4962/02 and A/Wyoming/03/03, were compared with the prototype A/Fujian/411/02 virus. A/Sendai differed from A/Fujian by three amino acids in the neuraminidase (NA), whereas A/Wyoming differed from A/Fujian by five amino acids in the hemagglutinin (HA). The HA and NA segments of these three viruses were reassorted with cold-adapted A/Ann Arbor/6/60, the master donor virus for the live attenuated type A influenza vaccines (FluMist). The HA and NA residues differed between these three H3N2 viruses evaluated for their impact on virus replication in MDCK cells and in embryonated chicken eggs. It was determined that replication of A/Fujian/411/02 in eggs could be improved by either changing minimum of two HA residues (G186V and V226I) to increase the HA receptor-binding ability or by changing a minimum of two NA residues (E119Q and Q136K) to lower the NA enzymatic activity. Alternatively, recombinant A/Fujian/411/02 virus could be adapted to grow in eggs by two amino acid substitutions in the HA molecule (H183L and V226A), which also resulted in the increased HA receptor-binding activity. Thus, the balance between the HA and NA activities is critical for influenza virus replication in a different host system. The HA or NA changes that increased A/Fujian/411/02 virus replication in embryonated chicken eggs were found to have no significant impact on antigenicity of these recombinant viruses. This study demonstrated that the reverse genetics technology could be used to improve the manufacture of the influenza vaccines.     

Zanamivir-Resistant Influenza Viruses with a Novel Neuraminidase Mutation

The neuraminidase inhibitors zanamivir and oseltamivir are marketed for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza and have been stockpiled by many countries for use in a pandemic. Although recent surveillance has identified a striking increase in the frequency of oseltamivir-resistant seasonal influenza A (H1N1) viruses in Europe, the United States, Oceania, and South Africa, to date there have been no reports of significant zanamivir resistance among influenza A (H1N1) viruses or any other human influenza viruses. We investigated the frequency of oseltamivir and zanamivir resistance in circulating seasonal influenza A (H1N1) viruses in Australasia and Southeast Asia. Analysis of 391 influenza A (H1N1) viruses isolated between 2006 and early 2008 from Australasia and Southeast Asia revealed nine viruses (2.3%) that demonstrated markedly reduced zanamivir susceptibility and contained a previously undescribed Gln136Lys (Q136K) neuraminidase mutation. The mutation had no effect on oseltamivir susceptibility but caused approximately a 300-fold and a 70-fold reduction in zanamivir and peramivir susceptibility, respectively. The role of the Q136K mutation in conferring zanamivir resistance was confirmed using reverse genetics. Interestingly, the mutation was not detected in the primary clinical specimens from which these mutant isolates were grown, suggesting that the resistant viruses either occurred in very low proportions in the primary clinical specimens or arose during MDCK cell culture passage. Compared to susceptible influenza A (H1N1) viruses, the Q136K mutant strains displayed greater viral fitness than the wild-type virus in MDCK cells but equivalent infectivity and transmissibility in a ferret model.Two classes of antiviral drugs are currently available for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza, the adamantanes and the neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors (NAIs). The adamantanes were the first agents to be recognized to have anti-influenza virus activities as early as 1964 (2) although the rapid emergence of drug-resistant influenza virus strains has limited their clinical effectiveness (12). The NAIs, zanamivir (Relenza) and oseltamivir (Tamiflu), were the first drugs to be specifically designed as anti-influenza virus agents and have been available on the market in many countries since 1999. During oseltamivir clinical trials, 1 to 4% of treated adults (6) and 5 to 6% of treated children were found to shed resistant viruses (30) although more recent studies have reported resistance in 16 to 18% of viruses from oseltamivir-treated children (20, 29). In contrast to the frequency of resistance seen following oseltamivir treatment, only one occurrence of significant zanamivir resistance has been observed following zanamivir treatment. The zanamivir-resistant strain, an influenza B virus with an R152K NA mutation, was isolated from an immunocompromised patient undergoing prolonged zanamivir treatment (7).In addition to the analysis of influenza viruses isolated from patients undergoing either oseltamivir or zanamivir treatment, surveillance studies that analyze the NAI susceptibility of circulating viruses, predominantly from patients not undergoing NAI treatment, have also been conducted. Studies that have tested viruses isolated prior to the release of the NAIs (1996 to 1999) (23) and after the initiation of clinical use of these drugs (2000 to 2006) (16, 24) have found either no resistance or a very low frequency of resistance. In contrast, analysis of circulating seasonal influenza viruses from Europe during the 2007 to 2008 season revealed that 14% (59/437) of influenza A (H1N1) viruses had significantly decreased susceptibility to oseltamivir (21). Since this initial report, oseltamivir-resistant influenza A (H1N1) strains have spread throughout Europe (11) and have been detected at high frequencies in other countries including the United States (4), Japan (28), South Africa (1) and Oceania and Southeast Asia (17). These influenza A (H1N1) viruses have a mutation of histidine to tyrosine at residue 274 of the NA (N2 NA numbering; residue 275 by N1 NA numbering), which confers a high level of resistance to oseltamivir (10) but has no effect on susceptibility to zanamivir or to the adamantanes.Prior to May 2008, when the oseltamivir-resistant variants became the dominant influenza A (H1N1) strain in Oceania and Southeast Asia (17), NAI sensitivity monitoring conducted at the WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Melbourne, identified a number of influenza A (H1N1) viruses with reduced zanamivir susceptibility. These viruses contained a previously undescribed mutation at residue 136 of the NA. Here, we report on the detection of these mutant viruses from geographically distinct locations, the in vitro and in vivo fitness of the strains, and the finding that the mutant viruses appear to have been preferentially propagated during viral culture in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells.     

Chimeric influenza A viruses with a functional influenza B virus neuraminidase or hemagglutinin

Reassortment of influenza A and B viruses has never been observed in vivo or in vitro. Using reverse genetics techniques, we generated recombinant influenza A/WSN/33 (WSN) viruses carrying the neuraminidase (NA) of influenza B virus. Chimeric viruses expressing the full-length influenza B/Yamagata/16/88 virus NA grew to titers similar to that of wild-type influenza WSN virus. Recombinant viruses in which the cytoplasmic tail or the cytoplasmic tail and the transmembrane domain of the type B NA were replaced with those of the type A NA were impaired in tissue culture. This finding correlates with reduced NA content in virions. We also generated a recombinant influenza A virus expressing a chimeric hemagglutinin (HA) protein in which the ectodomain is derived from type B/Yamagata/16/88 virus HA, whereas both the cytoplasmic and the transmembrane domains are derived from type A/WSN virus HA. This A/B chimeric HA virus did not grow efficiently in MDCK cells. However, after serial passage we obtained a virus population that grew to titers as high as wild-type influenza A virus in MDCK cells. One amino acid change in position 545 (H545Y) was found to be responsible for the enhanced growth characteristics of the passaged virus. Taken together, we show here that the absence of reassortment between influenza viruses belonging to different A and B types is not due to spike glycoprotein incompatibility at the level of the full-length NA or of the HA ectodomain.