生态系统服务供给与需求的理论与管理方法

生态系统服务是当前可持续科学研究的热点之一。随着环境保护与管理需求的不断增加,政策制定者希望将生态系统服务信息更多地融入管理实践中。由于理论的不确定性和研究方法的局限性,如何准确地评价生态系统服务、如何考虑不同利益相关者的需求,提取重要的生态系统服务信息给决策者参考,仍然是当前该领域研究的难点。基于生态系统服务的产生、传递和消耗过程,区分生态系统服务的潜在供给、实际供给和人类需求;引入生态系统服务供需比和供给率两个指标,为区域间自然资源资产的比较提供一种方法;以白洋淀流域为案例,采用生态系统服务矩阵法,结合GIS空间模拟技术,揭示生态系统服务供给与需求的空间特征。白洋淀流域2010年生态系统服务的供给率和供需比分别是:0.4966和0.1131,说明流域生态系统服务供给状态较好,且处于盈余状态。对流域内供给率较高且供给处于盈余的区域,应作为生态保护与补偿的主要区域;对生态系统服务需求较大的区域应进行必要的生态建设与修复。研究结果为区域生态环境管理和政策制定提供了实际的科学依据。     

海洋生态系统服务价值评估研究综述

海洋生态系统服务是通过海洋生态系统的功能结构和生态过程,以物品和服务等方式直接或间接地给人类提供的效益。海洋生态系统服务价值衡量了海洋生态系统对人类经济社会的贡献度,加快海洋强国建设,急需加强海洋生态系统服务价值评价。通过对市场价值法、替代市场法和假想市场法三大类海洋生态系统服务价值评估方法进行比较分析后可知,各类方法各有利弊,但是,存在不同方法耦合和方法优化选择的空间。通过海岸带、近海、远洋等典型海洋生态系统服务价值评估的研究案例展现了海洋生态系统服务价值评估在海洋资源开发与保护的政策选择、海洋生态补偿与环境损害赔偿的价格决定中的重要作用。海洋生态系统服务价值评估研究前景广阔,在内涵认知深入化、评估方法科学化、评估指标体系化、结果应用广泛化等方面仍有进一步拓展空间。     

Selecting ecological indicators to compare maintenance costs related to the compensation of damaged ecosystem services

The aim of this paper is to compare different maintenance costs of ecosystem service arising from a hypothetical case of environmental damage in order to help to understand how the different ecosystem services are considered in decision making processes. Compensatory measures are aimed precisely at maintaining the level of supply of ecosystem services. According to the literature, compensatory measures like restoration are usually applied to specific ecosystem services. We used the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) categories of ecosystem service. For each MEA category, several ecological indicators are selected, and the cost of the compensatory measures required to fulfill the goal of no net loss is assessed using the Habitat Equivalency Analysis (HEA). The results of this analysis highlight differences between compensatory measures and their associated costs depending on the category of ecosystem services targeted. Maintenance costs are high for regulating services, low for provisioning services, and more difficult to determine for cultural services (high or low depending on the indicator selected). We discuss the implications of this result, noting that it is more rational for project developers to focus their attention on provisioning services if the legal regulation of compensation is lax or if indicators relative to cultural and regulating services are not precise enough.     

海洋生态系统服务的产生与实现

在阐述海洋生态系统服务内涵的基础上,分析了海洋生态系统服务的产生过程和实现途径,将海洋生态系统每一组分和(或)功能与其所提供的服务联系起来,给出了从每种组分和(或)功能到相应的服务所经过的生理生态过程.结果表明,海洋生态系统的服务一部分是生物组分和(或)系统整体直接提供,另一部分是通过系统功能产生.系统内的各种生理生态过程不直接产生服务.服务的实现包括海洋生态系统途径和海洋生态经济系统途径两种.     

Current Status and Future Prospects for the Assessment of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services: A Systematic Review

Background

Research on ecosystem services has grown exponentially during the last decade. Most of the studies have focused on assessing and mapping terrestrial ecosystem services highlighting a knowledge gap on marine and coastal ecosystem services (MCES) and an urgent need to assess them.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We reviewed and summarized existing scientific literature related to MCES with the aim of extracting and classifying indicators used to assess and map them. We found 145 papers that specifically assessed marine and coastal ecosystem services from which we extracted 476 indicators. Food provision, in particular fisheries, was the most extensively analyzed MCES while water purification and coastal protection were the most frequently studied regulating and maintenance services. Also recreation and tourism under the cultural services was relatively well assessed. We highlight knowledge gaps regarding the availability of indicators that measure the capacity, flow or benefit derived from each ecosystem service. The majority of the case studies was found in mangroves and coastal wetlands and was mainly concentrated in Europe and North America. Our systematic review highlighted the need of an improved ecosystem service classification for marine and coastal systems, which is herein proposed with definitions and links to previous classifications.

Conclusions/Significance

This review summarizes the state of available information related to ecosystem services associated with marine and coastal ecosystems. The cataloging of MCES indicators and the integrated classification of MCES provided in this paper establish a background that can facilitate the planning and integration of future assessments. The final goal is to establish a consistent structure and populate it with information able to support the implementation of biodiversity conservation policies.     

海洋生态系统服务的来源与实现

从海洋生态系统的组分、生态过程及生物多样性等3个方面,分析了海洋生态系统能够产生和支持的生态系统服务。按照相似的作用和性质,海洋生态系统服务可以归纳为15种类型。尽管对海洋生态系统的许多生态过程及生物种类还不了解,但本文试图在这些服务与其来源之间建立起对应关系,以掌握这些服务的实现过程。每种生态系统服务都来源于生态系统的组分。并通过一定生态过程得以实现。所以,当海洋生态系统的组分或过程受损时,海洋生态系统服务将减弱或丧失．并因此而影响人类对这些服务的享用。理解和掌握海洋生态系统服务的来源及实现过程,不仅可以更好地认识海洋生态系统的重要性,还可以为受损生态系统修复提供科学基础,从而更好地管理和维护海洋生态系统的服务,实现社会的可持续发展。     

雄安新区多尺度生态安全格局构建框架

维持城市所处的生态系统格局与过程,使得城市生存和发展所依赖的关键生态系统服务实现供需平衡是保障城市生态安全的根本要求和基本前提。因此,城市生态安全不仅是城市本身的问题,还涉及到城市所处的流域、区域、国家等多个不同的空间尺度,具体由支撑城市及其发展的关键生态系统服务所涉及的生态过程所决定。对生态安全概念及研究进展进行了梳理和分析,在此基础上,提出了一个城市生态安全保障的生态系统服务研究框架,将维持城市生态安全的关键生态系统服务需求分为3个层次：一是水资源供给、食物生产、水质净化等城市生存所依赖的基础资源与基本环境维持相关的服务,二是土壤保持、水源涵养、防风固沙、固碳释氧、生物多样性等生态系统稳定和可持续性维持相关的生态系统稳定和调节类服务,三是生态休闲、微气候调节、降尘减噪、文化审美等人居环境与文化类服务。进而利用该框架,从不同需求层次分别对雄安新区生态安全保障的生态系统服务需求进行了分析,结合其自然地理特征和新区建设的社会经济发展情景,从新区城市、大清河流域和京津冀区域三个尺度提出了雄安新区生态安全格局构建框架,以及相应的保障对策和建议,包括从多尺度进行生态环境调控和管理,打破行政和地域边界限制;关注各尺度各关键生态系统服务的过程,加强生态环境要素的监测和预警;重视新区在人居环境改善层次的生态系统服务需求等。     

Pathways to bridge the biophysical realism gap in ecosystem services mapping approaches

The mapping of ecosystem service supply has become quite common in ecosystem service assessment practice for terrestrial ecosystems, but land cover remains the most common indicator for ecosystems ability to deliver ecosystem services. For marine ecosystems, practice is even less advanced, with a clear deficit in spatially-explicit assessments of ecosystem service supply. This situation, which generates considerable uncertainty in the assessment of ecosystems’ ability to support current and future human well-being, contrasts with increasing understanding of the role of terrestrial and marine biodiversity for ecosystem functioning and thereby for ecosystem services. This paper provides a synthesis of available approaches, models and tools, and data sources, that are able to better link ecosystem service mapping to current understanding of the role of ecosystem service providing organisms and land/seascape structure in ecosystem functioning. Based on a review of literature, models and associated geo-referenced metrics are classified according to the way in which land or marine use, ecological processes and especially biodiversity effects are represented. We distinguish five types of models: proxy-based, phenomenological, niche-based, trait-based and full-process. Examples from each model type are presented and data requirements considered. Our synthesis demonstrates that the current understanding of the role of biota in ecosystem services can effectively be incorporated into mapping approaches and opens avenues for further model development using hybrid approaches tailored to available resources. We end by discussing ways to resolve sources of uncertainty associated with model representation of biotic processes and with data availability.     

河流景观生态服务供给与需求/消费的互馈机制

河流景观系统孕育了人类文明,为人类社会提供类型多样的生态系统服务。其本身是一个自然景观过程和社会经济过程高度耦合的社会-生态系统,具有极高的空间异质性、时间动态和鲜明的组织尺度等级结构。当前,对河流景观系统这种特点所决定的生态系统服务供给与需求/消费互馈的机制研究不够深入,普遍缺乏从过程角度刻画生态服务供给与需求/消费互馈关系及其时空异质性和尺度特征。生态服务供给、需求和消费产生于社会-生态系统,是社会-生态耦合的纽带。阐述了河流景观生态服务供给和需求/消费的时空异质性,阐释了它们时空耦合机制和尺度特征,梳理了当前对生态服务供给、需求/消费互馈机理研究的不足。认为未来需要在社会-生态系统的框架下,从景观结构和生态过程出发,融合景观生态过程和社会过程来深入认识河流景观系统的生态服务供给与区内人类对生态服务的需求/消费之间的互馈机制。未来应重点关注：（1）河流景观结构和过程决定的生态服务供给和消费的空间分异及驱动机制;（2）河流生态服务传输的自然和人文载体及其耦合格局;（3）将生态服务需求/消费通过景观结构和生态过程对生态服务供给的反馈融入生态服务评估的方法框架,研发基于生态服务供给和需求/消费的社会-生态互馈过程模型。     

Perspectives on the link between ecosystem services and biodiversity: The assessment of the nursery function

The relationship between biodiversity and each ecosystem service or bundle of ecosystem services (e.g. win−win, win−lose or win−neutral) is an active field of research that requires structured and consistent information. The application of that research for conservation and decision-making can be hampered by the ambiguity found in the definition of the nursery function under the ecosystem service perspective. In this paper, we review how the role of nursery habitats is included in the ecosystem services literature, covering conceptual, biophysical and economic reflections. The role of ecosystems as nurseries is mostly analyzed in coastal environments. The main observation is that there is no consensus on the consideration of the nursery function as a service (e.g. which species or habitats) or on how to assess it (e.g. which indicators or valuation methods). After that review, we analyze three different interpretations given to the nursery function, namely the ecological, conservationist and economic point of view; and we distinguish between different types of assessment that may consider the nursery function.We conclude that the nursery function can be considered an ecosystem service on its own right when it is linked to a concrete human benefit and not when it is represented with indicators of general biodiversity or ecosystem condition. Thus, the analysis of the delivery of ecosystem services should be differentiated from the analysis of ecological integrity. Only with this distinction science may be able to quantify the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services and policy may be effective in halting biodiversity loss. Similar considerations could apply for other biodiversity constituents that may be treated as ecosystem services.     

基于生态系统服务供需的城市群生态安全格局构建框架

近年来,生态系统服务供需失调引发了一系列问题,诸如城市热岛、生态用地流失、环境污染、生物多样性减少等生态风险问题,已成为威胁生态安全、制约社会经济可持续发展的重要因素,因此维持生态系统服务供需平衡是生态安全健康发展的保障和关键。梳理了生态系统服务评价、生态安全格局构建的研究现状,指出了存在的不足,同时构建了基于生态系统服务的城市群生态安全格局基本框架,并提出了生态安全格局未来的研究重点:城市群区域和城市内部生态系统服务的多尺度综合评价、城市功能区的划分及对生态安全的胁迫作用、生态过程与生态系统服务与生态安全的耦合、基于生态系统服务流的生态安全格局构建、模拟和优化。通过耦合社会经济数据、卫星遥感数据、城市地图大数据,评价城市内部和外部不同尺度的生态系统服务,保障城市群生态系统服务流畅通传输,实现城市群生态安全格局评价和优化。     

A framework for assessing ecological quality based on ecosystem services

Existing environmental legislation and ecological quality definitions such as ecosystem integrity tend to rely on measures that, either implicitly or explicitly, utilize naturalness as a key criterion. There are marked practical difficulties with employing the concept of naturalness in human dominated landscapes, and the management of such ecosystems is inevitably going to need to take account of human needs and expectations. We propose that ecological quality could be assessed by its ecosystem service profile (ESP): the overlap between societal expectations for, and the sustainable provision of, suites of ecosystem services. The status for each individual ecosystem service is defined by the ratio of its sustained provision to the expected level of provision for the service. The ESP measure is a multi-criterion, context-specific assessment of the match between expectation for and sustainable supply of ecosystem services. It provides a flexible measure of quality which takes into account that the “ideal” ecosystem state is largely dependent on the specific management context. The implementation of ESPs challenges us to develop indicators for the sustained provision of individual ecosystem services, much better understanding of the trade-offs among services, and practical tools for gauging societal demands. All of which are challenging problems. The proposed framework can help to strategically address research needs and monitoring requirements and foster a more integrative approach to ecosystem assessment and management in the future. The need for this follows from the fact that the undisturbed reference state represents only one aspect of an ecosystem and that ecological quality in human dominated landscapes will, ultimately, be determined by the value society places on the sustainable provision of multiple ecosystem services.     

中国生态区划研究进展:从格局、功能到服务

在总结国内外生态区域研究的基础上,系统梳理了中国现有的生态区划方案,总结出生态特征和类型区划、生态地理和格局区划、生态功能和服务区划三大类,分别对每个区划的指标、技术、方案、特点进行了归纳,并提出了各自存在的问题。现有研究缺少面向服务供需的生态系统区划,生态制图和更新的标准化技术也存在不足。为此,提出明确不同生态区划的科学或管理目标、强调人类需求对于生态系统服务的影响、重视全球气候变化对生态系统的现实作用和未来影响、加强现代制图技术在生态区划的作用、整合现有多原则和多目标的生态分区方案等五个方面的建议。     

Interactions of ecosystem properties,ecosystem integrity and ecosystem service indicators—A theoretical matrix exercise

The ecosystem service concept is becoming more and more acknowledged in science and decision-making, resulting in several applications in different case studies and in environmental management, but still it is developing in terms of definitions, typologies and understanding its complexity. By examining the interrelations between ecosystem properties, ecosystem integrity, biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being qualitatively, the mutual influences on each constituent of the ‘ecosystem service cascade’ are illuminated, giving an impulse for further discussions and improvements for a better understanding of the complexity of human–environmental systems. Results of the theoretical interactions are among others the assumption that provisioning services exclude or compete with each other, while the role of biodiversity was found to be supporting for regulating services and cultural services. Ecosystem services meet the criteria of being adequate human–environmental system indicators and therefore, they are an appropriate instrument for decision-making and management.     

差异化的生态公益林生态补偿标准——以北京市为例

生态补偿本质是生态系统服务的购买,因此生态补偿标准的制定必须基于生态系统所提供的生态服务价值。2004年开始,北京市逐步对生态公益林进行生态补偿,但补偿项目仍然采用了一刀切的标准制定模式。森林生态系统因树种和林龄的不同,提供的生态系统服务存在较大差异。另外,生态公益林所处的区域位置也决定着其生态系统服务价值发挥的稳定性和相对重要性,是生态补偿标准的制定中必须要考虑的因素。因而,有必要基于生态系统的生态服务价值量核算,并综合考虑生态系统的立地环境、区域定位和资源稀缺度因素,构建差异化的生态公益林生态补偿方案。依据该方案计算的北京生态公益林补偿标准范围在176元/hm~2到2168元/hm~2,其中延庆区和怀柔区的生态公益林补偿标准较高,中心城区和房山区的补偿标准较低。补偿标准的全市平均值为1265元/hm~2,与北京现行山区生态林生态补偿项目的补偿标准相当。构建的公益林生态补偿标准,体现了生态系统的生态服务价值以及生态服务的区位相对重要性差异,为动态化、多元化的公益林生态补偿方案建立提供了可能。     

保障粮食安全造成的生态价值损失评估模型及应用

粮食安全和生态安全是我国政府必须切实解决的关系到社会经济发展、人民生活质量提高和社会稳定的重大战略问题。借鉴前人的生态服务价值理论与评估模型的基础上,阐明了保障粮食安全造成的生态服务价值损失的内涵,并以理论分析为依据,分别构建了评估不同类型生态服务价值损失的模型,为了验证所构建模型的可操作性和实用性,以陕西省长武县为案例区,对其2008年保障粮食安全导致的生态价值损失进行了评估,在不同类型生态服务价值损失中,由于不同生态系统的合理转换引起的生态服务价值损失为22834.16×104元;如果将长武县所有粮食生产用地作为林地、草地、水体,与作为耕地相比,可为人们多提供的生态服务价值分别为:21963.30×104元、4095.04×104元、40678.82×104元;单位面积林地、草地、水体可以多提供的生态服务价值量,最高的是水体,为19682.34元/hm2,林地和草地分别为:10627.4元/hm2和1981.37元/hm2。     

Urban ecosystem services assessment along a rural–urban gradient: A cross-analysis of European cities

The main objective of this paper is to present an assessment approach for ecosystem services in an urban context covering the local and the regional scale. It was applied to different European cities. A set of indicators representing important urban ecosystem goods and services – local climate regulation, air cooling and recreation – was tested using spatial data along an urban–rural gradient. The results show that there is neither a typical rural–urban gradient in terms of urban ecosystem service provisioning nor a uniform urban spatial pattern of service provisioning that can serve as a generic model for cities. The results demonstrate that (1) core cities do not necessarily provide fewer ecosystem services compared to their regions and (2) there were no patches found within the four case study cities where all of the indicators report very high performance values. The analysis further shows that a high degree of imperviousness does not necessarily entail low ecosystem service provisioning if an urban structure contains a considerable amount of mature trees which support carbon storage and biodiversity. The results of the present paper provide insights into potentials and trade-offs between different urban ecosystem services that should be considered during urban planning when setting targets and establishing thresholds to protect environmental resources, ecosystem services and biodiversity for residents.     

生态恢复中生态系统服务的演变:趋势、过程与评估

经过10余年的发展,生态系统服务已经成为生态恢复研究关注的前沿和热点。生态恢复改变了生态系统格局与过程,对生态系统服务的产生和提供具有重要影响。但是目前对于生态系统服务在生态恢复过程中的演化仍缺少系统性研究。对国内外相关研究的最新成果进行综述,总结了生态系统服务评估中框架的构建和方法的选择(参数转移法、系统模型法和定量指标法),介绍了生态恢复对生态系统服务的促进作用、生态系统服务的演变过程以及不同生态系统服务间的协同与权衡关系,分析了社会经济因素对生态恢复和生态系统服务维持的影响。最后结合我国生态恢复实践,提出未来生态恢复和生态系统服务研究可以从深化作用机制研究、推动服务评估创新、增强研究成果应用3方面深化和拓展。     

Supplied,demanded and consumed ecosystem services: Prospects for national assessment in Russia

The National assessment of ecosystem services of Russia is an urgent task taking into account their key importance for maintaining the quality of life of the population and the regulation of biosphere processes. The purpose of the present paper is to propose a natural science methodology for evaluation supplied, demanded and consumed ecosystem services for national ecosystem assessment of Russia.Supplied ecosystem services were considered as services produced by ecosystems regardless of presence or absence of people, demanded – as the volume of services that is necessary for people and economy, consumed – as services actually used by people. Ratios between these three volumes of ecosystem services reveal the degree of service use and degree of meeting the demand for service that are analogous to indices of ecosystem service budget.The proposed methodology was tested in the preparation of the Prototype of the National Report on Ecosystem Services of Russia. Ecosystem services of air and water purification are considered as examples in the present paper.These examples demonstrate that proposed methodology is useful for estimation of surplus or deficit in ecosystem services across regions and identification of ecological risk areas. It also allows regional comparison at national level.