The importance of traditional uses and nutraceutical aspects of some edible wild plants in human nutrition: the case of Umbria (central Italy)

This study aimed to show how the importance of edible wild plants regards not only a question of uses linked to folk traditions but also their value in human nutrition. Data on the use of 50 species were collected through informed consent semi-structured interviews with local informants. They were eaten raw in salads (43%), boiled (35%), as ravioli filling (10%), fried without or with eggs (8%) and in vegetable soup (4%). Furthermore, the nutraceutical analysis centred on four of the commonly used wild edible plants demonstrates how these species contain many of the so-called minor nutrients, such as antioxidising vitamins and polyphenols, which were highest in Sanguisorba minor L.     

Plant knowledge of the Shuhi in the Hengduan Mountains, Southwest China

The Shuhi are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group of around 1,500 people living exclusively in the Shuiluo Valley, southwest China. We documented their plant knowledge concerning wild collected species, and analyzed food, medicine, and ritual uses. Overall, uses, collection sites, and use frequencies of 136 plant species were documented. The plants were divided in fodder (46 spp.), food (43 spp.), medicine (27 spp.), ritual plants (20 spp.), fuelwood (17 spp.), plants used for construction (8 spp.), ornamentals (2 spp.), and "others" (34 spp.). Food plants mainly consist of fruits and leafy vegetables, and the uses are comparable with those of other ethnic groups in the area. Knowledge about medicinal plants is relatively limited, since traditional Shuhi healers use ritual and other healing methods instead of medicinal plants. Ritual plants play an important role relative to human well-being. Villagers and ritualists use them to keep the environment clean of malevolent spirits and to maintain a good relationship with the deities. All habitats, from the dry shrub vegetation at the valley bottom up to the alpine shrub, are used for plant collection, but 87% of all species are collected in the near vicinity of the villages around the fields and in the dry shrub vegetation. Finally, we postulate two main factors influencing wild plant use among the Shuhi: cultural values and accessibility.     

Medicinal plants of Erute county,Lira district,Uganda with particular reference to their conservation

A medicinal plant study was carried out in eighteen parishes and 54 villages of Erute county, Lira district, Uganda. Parishes and villages were selected using stratified random sampling techniques. Questionnaires, interviews and discussions with the local people were used to obtain information on the names of the plants, their medicinal uses and conservation methods. The number of the medicinal plants species used was 180 belonging to 144 genera and 57 families of flowering plants. The major families recorded for medicinal purpose included Fabaceae (37 species), Asteraceae (26 species), Euphorbiaceae (eleven species), Vitaceae (eight species), Verbenaceae (seven species), Poaceae (six species), Solanaceae (five species), and Rubiaceae (four species). There is a need for putting in place measures to conserve these plants. Unfortunately, most of the healers or users were not interested in cultivation of the plants. The situation could worsen with the social changes and demand for land for agriculture in the district.     

An Ethnobotanical Survey of Inner-West Anatolia, Turkey

This study is focused on ethnobotanical usages of wild plants growing within the Afyonkarahisar province districts of Sinanpaşa, Hocalar and Dazkırı. Ninety local informants in 11 villages were interviewed. A total of 129 different usages of wild plants in the study area were recorded. Out of 650 plant species commonly present, 93 plant taxa (14.3%) belonging to 43 families were used for medicinal (52 citations), foodstuff (37 citations), fodder (14 citations), dye (six citations), firewood (five citations), construction materials (four citations) and miscellaneous purposes (11 citations). At least 15% of the information regarding ethnobotanical uses of wild plants was obtained by showing herbarium voucher samples to the informants. It was noted that Sideritis leptoclada and Verbascum stenostachyum are endemic to Turkey and their endangered status has markedly increased in recent years because of increased collecting for ethnobotanical purposes. Informants indicate that members of the younger generation have a much reduced interest in ethnobotanical knowledge and that this is a danger to the continued use of local plants.     

Ethnobotanical review of wild edible plants in Spain

This paper compiles and evaluates the ethnobotanical data currently available on wild plants traditionally used for human consumption in Spain. Forty-six ethnobotanical and ethnographical sources from Spain were reviewed, together with some original unpublished field data from several Spanish provinces. A total of 419 plant species belonging to 67 families was recorded. A list of species, plant parts used, localization and method of consumption, and harvesting time is presented. Of the seven different food categories considered, green vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used to prepare beverages, wild fruits, and plants used for seasoning, sweets, preservatives, and other uses. Important species according to the number of reports include: Foeniculum vulgare , Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum , Origanum vulgare , Rubus ulmifolius , Silene vulgaris , Asparagus acutifolius , and Scolymus hispanicus . We studied data on the botanical families to which the plants in the different categories belonged, overlapping between groups and distribution of uses of the different species. Many wild food plants have also been used for medicinal purposes and some are considered to be poisonous. This review highlights the rich traditional knowledge on edible plants that has remained in rural Spain. Until recently, many wild plants were used as dietary supplements. However, most of this knowledge survives only in the memory of the elderly, and will probably disappear in a few decades.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 27–71.     

Dietary use of wild plant resources in the Sikkim Himalaya, India

The edible wild plants are greatly valued throughout the Himalayan region and serve as an important source of food for indigenous communities. This paper describes the botanical richness, elevational distribution and dietary use of the edible wild plant resources from the Sikkim Himalaya (Eastern Himalaya), many with promising potential. A total of 190 wild plant species have been screened from the Sikkim Himalaya, this derived from 143 genera and 78 families and accounting for nearly 15% of total edible wild plants resources of India. Of the total, 65% were edible for their fruits, 22% for leaves/shoots, 7% for flowers and 3% for roots/ rhizomes. Nearly 91 wild edible species were recorded from low-hills, 70 from mid-hills and 28 species from high-hill areas. Within Sikkim state, the North and East districts represent maximum diversity of edible wild plants due to the wilderness and inaccessibility to most of the habitats. An average rural family annually consumes nearly 8 types of edible wild plants, and a few species provide over five meals in a season. Selected plants also form a source of earning to a few families that sell them in local markets. It is suggested that the high diversity of edible plants needs to be conserved for future use. Some species may be grown in traditional agroforestry systems and on marginal lands of otherwise low agricultural value. Such measures may help protect wild plant resources in their natural habitats.     

Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal

Background

Wild edible plants (WEP) provide staple and supplement foods, as well as cash income to local communities, thus favouring food security. However, WEP are largely ignored in land use planning and implementation, economic development, and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, WEP-related traditional knowledge is rapidly eroding. Therefore, we designed this study to fulfill a part of the knowledge gap by providing data on diversity, traditional knowledge, economic potential, and conservation value of WEP from Nepal.

Methods

The information was collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Percentage of general utility of the plants among the study communities was evaluated using the Chi-square (χ ²) test of homogeneity. High priority species were identified after consultation with the local stakeholders followed by scoring based on defined criteria. Pairwise ranking was used to assess ethnoecological knowledge to identify the threats to WEP.

Results

We documented 81 species belonging to Angiosperms (74), Pteridophytes (5), and Fungi (2). Most of the species were used as fruits (44 species) followed by vegetables (36). Almost half of the species (47%) were also used for purposes other than food. From the species with market value (37% of the total), 10 were identified as high priority species. Pairwise ranking revealed that WEP are threatened mostly by habitat destruction, land-use change and over-harvesting. Some of these plants are crop wild relatives and could thus be used for crop improvement. Interestingly, our study also revealed that young people who spend most of the time in the forest as herdsmen are particularly knowledgeable of wild fruit plants.

Conclusion

We provide empirical evidence from a relatively large area of Nepal about diversity and status of WEP, as well as methodological insights about the proper knowledge holders to consult. Regarding the unique and important knowledge they have on WEP, young people should be included when recruiting participants to ethnobotanical studies or to any type of consultation about WEP. The habit of using wild edible plants is still alive and is a traditional culinary practice that demonstrates rich traditional knowledge of local people. WEP were found to be important for livelihood as well as showing great potential for crop improvement. Priority species should be promoted for income generation activities through sustainable collection and trade. Communities should engage in minimizing the threats to these valuable resources.     

Patterns of use and knowledge of wild edible plants in distinct ecological environments: a case study of a Mapuche community from northwestern Patagonia

The multiple use of distinct ecological environments in the search for wild resources has been practiced since ancestral times in aboriginal communities inhabiting northwestern Patagonia. This paper examines the actual use and knowledge of wild edible plants in a Mapuche community presently settled in one of the most arid areas of Patagonia, far from the temperate forests where their ancestors used to live. The difference between knowledge of and use of wild plants is analyzed emphasizing that these differences could contribute to the understanding of eroding processes believed to be occurring in the community. These objectives are studied quantitatively by utilizing ethnobotanical indices, partially derived from ecological theory. Our results indicate that the Paineo dwellers still utilize multiple ecological gathering environments and have thorough plant knowledge of both native and exotic species. The Andean forest, more than 50km away from this community, is the environment from which the Paineo dwellers know the greatest total richness and the highest diversity of wild edible plants, followed by the Monte–Steppe species and lastly, those growing around their homes. The transmission of wild edible plant knowledge in the Paineo community diminishes with age, and the forest plants are the most vulnerable to loss. Our results have shown that the knowledge and consumption of wild edible plants follows a pattern according to ecological conditions of the gathering environments, as well as the cultural heritage of the Paineo people.     

The use of wild edible plants in western and central Anatolia (Turkey)

In this study, 121 wild edible plants used as food in Anatolia were surveyed to determine the plant parts used and their detailed preparation methods. The results of this study show that the plants may be boiled, fried in fat, and eaten raw or as rolled vegetables. They may also be consumed as pickles, fruits, sweets and spices, and drunk as cold and hot drinks. Thirty species (8 genera) were identified as belonging to the Lamiaceae family, 15 species (15 genera) belong to the Asteraceae family, 13 species (5 genera) belong to the Rosaceae family, 8 species (7 genera) belong to the Brassicaceae family, 6 species (3 genera) belong to the Orchidaceae family and 5 species (5 genera) belong to the Apiaceae family. The genera represented by the highest number of species in the study are as follows:Sideritis L. is represented by 13 species, Origanum L. by 7 species,Rubus L. by 5 species,Thymus L. by 4 species andRumex L. by 4 species.     

锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族野生食用植物传统知识研究

选择当地牧民作为信息报告人,运用访谈和证据标本采集鉴定等民族植物学研究方法对内蒙古锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族野生食用植物进行了调查。结果表明,锡林郭勒典型草原地区蒙古族民间野生食用植物共有29种和2变种;食用部位包括全株、地上部位、根、茎、鳞茎、叶、花、果和种子,其中叶是使用频率最高的部位。民间食用方式可分为野生粮食、蔬菜、水果、茶用、调料和零食6种类型。其中,蔬菜用野生植物最多,其次为茶用和调料用植物。当地民间对野生食用植物通常采取生食和熟食两种方法。采用腌制或干燥是当地民间对野生食用植物原料或加工品进行保存的主要方法。羊肉、牛肉、鲜奶和酸奶是当地蒙古族用野生植物烹饪各种食物和调制奶茶时的必用原料,具有地区和民族特色。     

Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Wild Plants in Some Selected Districts of Ethiopia

The ethnobotanical study on edible wild plants was carried out from May to December, 2001, in four districts of Ethiopia. The study areas included the rural and semiurban settings of Alamata, Cheha, Goma, and Yilmana Denssa districts of Tigray, Southern Peoples, Oromiya, and Amhara regional states, respectively. Voucher plant specimens were collected along with ethnobotanical information, and scientific names were determined. One hundred and fifty two plant parts from 130 species were recognized and consumed in these districts. Children consumed more wild plants during seasons of food availability (sufficient crop stock) than adults. There was marked increase in quantity and number of wild plant species consumed during food shortage and famine. A few of the reportedly edible species caused health problems that sometimes lead to fatality. Research into the safety and nutritional composition of edible wild plants and fungi is warranted. Selected edible wild plant species should be promoted as supplements to dietary variety and/or bridging the hungry periods of food shortage.     

Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used in Palestine (Northern West Bank): A comparative study

Background

A comparative food ethnobotanical study was carried out in fifteen local communities distributed in five districts in the Palestinian Authority, PA (northern West Bank), six of which were located in Nablus, two in Jenin, two in Salfit, three in Qalqilia, and two in Tulkarm. These are among the areas in the PA whose rural inhabitants primarily subsisted on agriculture and therefore still preserve the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants.

Methods

Data on the use of wild edible plants were collected for one-year period, through informed consent semi-structured interviews with 190 local informants. A semi-quantitative approach was used to document use diversity, and relative importance of each species.

Results and discussion

The study recorded 100 wild edible plant species, seventy six of which were mentioned by three informants and above and were distributed across 70 genera and 26 families. The most significant species include Majorana syriaca, Foeniculum vulgare, Malvasylvestris, Salvia fruticosa, Cyclamen persicum, Micromeria fruticosa, Arum palaestinum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Gundelia tournefortii, and Matricaria aurea. All the ten species with the highest mean cultural importance values (mCI), were cited in all five areas. Moreover, most were important in every region. A common cultural background may explain these similarities. One taxon (Majoranasyriaca) in particular was found to be among the most quoted species in almost all areas surveyed. CI values, as a measure of traditional botanical knowledge, for edible species in relatively remote and isolated areas (Qalqilia, and Salfit) were generally higher than for the same species in other areas. This can be attributed to the fact that local knowledge of wild edible plants and plant gathering are more spread in remote or isolated areas.

Conclusion

Gathering, processing and consuming wild edible plants are still practiced in all the studied Palestinian areas. About 26 % (26/100) of the recorded wild botanicals including the most quoted and with highest mCI values, are currently gathered and utilized in all the areas, demonstrating that there are ethnobotanical contact points among the various Palestinian regions. The habit of using wild edible plants is still alive in the PA, but is disappearing. Therefore, the recording, preserving, and infusing of this knowledge to future generations is pressing and fundamental.     

A Preliminary Study of Traditional,Wild Medicinal,Edible Plants in Xishuangbanna,Yunnan, China

An ethnobotanical study was conducted through interview and field work during 20103-20117 to determine the wild medicine food plants used by the local people of Xishuangbanna, southwest Yunnan, China. All information provided on the uses of medicine food plants by local communities was documented. In addition, the disk diffusion method was used to test the antibacterial activities of some plants. A total of 95 plant species belonging to 43 families were reported as medicine food plants, with Solanaceae (6 species) and Lamiaceae (6 species) being the most represented families. Most plants used were herbs (495%), of which 20 were screened for antibacterial activities. Baphicacanthus cusia and Solanum spirale showed moderate antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus. Our interviews revealed that in the study area wild plants are still commonly used for food and medicinal purposes by people in their daily lives. However, there is a gradual loss of traditional knowledge about these plants due to a decline in inter generational transmission of knowledge. Loss of this precious knowledge is a major concern.     

Uses and Conservation of Plant Species in a National Park—A Case Study of Ben En, Vietnam

Uses and Conservation of Plant Species in a National Park—A Case Study of Ben En, Vietnam. This paper surveys the use of wild and cultivated plants by local people in Ben En National Park, Vietnam, and analyzes its impact on the conservation status of some of the utilized species. A total of 208 species used for a range of nonmedicinal purposes are listed. See Hoang et al. (2008a) for 230 medicinal plants used in the park. Most species are used for food. The use of plants contributes very significantly to the livelihood of local people in the park, but the current use patterns are not sustainable and would lead to local extinction of rare and endangered species if no additional conservation measures are introduced. Men collect nonmedicinal plants more often than women. A total of 38 useful plant species are commercialized, and contribute 12% of the average income of individual households. Bamboo shoots of Schizostachyum funghomii (Poaceae) are the most important for income generation. The monetary equivalent of noncommercialized useful plants probably far exceeds the value of the traded plant products. Plant use is independent of the ethnicity of the different populations living in the park. Larger households make use of a greater variety of useful plant species than small families. Abundant species in the forest have a higher use index (UI) than less common species. Out of the 208 useful species, as many as 27 were found to be endangered locally, many more than the 11 or 8 endangered species included in national or global red lists. Currently, useful plants, especially important timber trees, are more abundant in the less disturbed parts of the park, far away from the villages, indicating the pressures of illegal logging and harvesting near villages on the ecosystems.     

The Investigation on Utilization of Wild Medicinal Plants in Dietary Culture of Quanzhou,Southern Fujian

An ethnobotanical survey on the medicinal plant species marketed in Quanzhou, southern Fujian, was conducted in order to document traditional medicinal knowledge and application of medicinal plants in dietary. In addition to literature review, data was obtained using ethnobotanical tools and methods, including personal interviews during field trips, collecting herbarium specimens, and species identification by cross referencing. The results showed that: 1) There are 148 wild medicinal species, belonging to 56 plant families and 117 genera present in Quanzhou, southern Fujian. Among them, 46 species are edible wild herbs, 37 species are medicinal plants, 38 species are used as tea substituting plants or herbal tea,22 species are wild fruits, 4 species are used as spices and 1 species is used to make bean jelly; 2) The plant families which comprise a major part of the pool are Compositae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Orchidaceae and Moraceae; 3) This study explored the utilization of the medicinal plants in Quanzhou area, and proposed methods to inherit the culture of using wild plants in dietary, as well as methods to conserve the edible medicinal wild plant resources.     

西双版纳传统利用的野生药食两用植物

2010年3月至2011年7月对西双版纳少数民族传统利用的药食两用植物进行民族植物学调查,通过访谈和野外调查工作, 收集并记录了关于当地社区传统利用药食两用植物的传统知识以及其他相关信息,并选择了其中20种植物进行抗菌活性的筛选。共调查统计了43科95种西双版纳传统利用的药食两用植物,从分类学角度来看,以茄科（6种）和唇形科（6种）最多,其中草本植物占了最大比例,为495%。对其中20种植物的抗菌活性筛选结果显示,只有马蓝（Baphicacanthus cusia）和旋花茄（Solanum spirale）对金黄色葡萄球菌有抑菌活性。从调查中可以看出：药食两用植物的利用在当地人的日常生活中仍占有相当重要的分量。但随着近年来经济快速发展导致的传统知识的急剧流失和森林的大面积砍伐,很多植物已经逐渐从人们的生活中淡出,如何保护这些传统知识并使其能够可持续发展下去是一个值得思考的问题。     

Comparison of wild edible plant diversity and foraging strategies in two aboriginal communities of northwestern Patagonia

We have compared edible plant richness, diversity and differential patterns of use in two Mapuche communities of Argentina. The populations of Rams and Cayulef are located in a herbaceous steppe, far from the temperate forests of northwestern Patagonia where their ancestors lived in the past. Ecological concepts and methods, such as diversity indices, niche breadth and optimal foraging theory have been used in this comparative study. Our results indicate that the diversity of wild plants used in Rams and Cayulef is associated with the variety of gathering environments they visit. When comparing diversity indices among the three environments within each community, in Cayulef we found the highest diversity indices for steppe species and the lowest for forest plants. In contrast, in Rams the niche breadth is similar in all environments, indicating an ample exploration and use of edible wild plants. Cost and benefit trade-offs seem to be considered in both communities when edible plants are collected. Nevertheless, we found that the people from Rams not only utilize a greater richness of wild plants than the Cayulef people, but also use more nutritious resources, spend more time traveling to the gathering sites and a longer handling time in preparing these edible plants. This study has quantitatively shown that the restricted access to Pehuen forest (Araucaria araucana) is the main factor which seems to limit wild plant diversity used in these Mapuche communities.     

Nontimber Forest Product Use in Two Human Populations from Northwest Patagonia: A Quantitative Approach

The ancestral tradition of gathering nontimber products in the Andean forests of Patagonia seems to be on the verge of disappearing. Edible wild plant knowledge and differential patterns of use have been compared in two populations of different economic and cultural backgrounds—a small rural Mapuche community (Rams), and an outlying population (El Frutillar). The first is located in an herbaceous steppe far from the nearest Andean forest while the second is located outside the town of Bariloche, near the forests of Nahuel Huapi National Park. Semistructured interviews and related ecological variables were compared in both communities. In the past, both communities utilized nontimber forest products from the Andean Temperate forests. However, today, cost and benefit trade-offs appear to affect when and what edible resources are collected. The people from El Frutillar gather fewer wild plants in spite of the high plant abundance and the notorious food scarcity they suffer. The Mapuche people use more nutritious resources, more native species, spend longer traveling to the gathering site, and longer handling time preparing edible plants.     

Sharing Ethnobotanical Knowledge in Traditional Villages: Evidence of Food and Nutraceutical “Core Groups” in Bali,Indonesia

The island of Bali has several aga (indigenous) villages that have survived despite the pressures of an intense tourist industry and agricultural changes. A rich ethnobotanical culture persists, but the meaning of differences in traditional ethnobotanical knowledge (TEK) remains under-explored. We analyzed information obtained from interviews of inhabitants from diverse villages on food and nutraceutical plants to identify plant patterns, i.e., relevant plant groups with species sharing a similar occurrence. Through cluster analysis, we identified 12 main groups of species and found that species were grouped based on traditional knowledge and the use each community made of plants on the whole, and not on growth forms nor on specific uses. The frequency distribution of species clusters showed a bimodal trend, with several groups present only in few villages, and a few groups present in almost all villages. The latter are defined as “core groups,” and represent the shared TEK of each aga community. Other “satellite species groups” embodied in the local TEK were related to small isolated communities. Cultural erosion caused by modernization, with the consequent fragmentation of information, was judged to be one of the main causes of increasing TEK heterogeneity.     

Study on Traditional Knowledge of Wild Edible Plants Used by the Mongolians in Xilingol Typical Steppe Area*

The local herdsmen were served as informants, methods of interviews and voucher specimen collection and identification have been used to conduct ethnobotanical field investigations on wild edible plants in the Xilingol typical steppe area, Inner Mongolia. The results show that 29 species and two varieties of wild plants used for food and drinks by the Mongolians in Xilingol typical steppe area. The edible parts of the plants are whole plant, aerial parts, roots, stems, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits or/and seeds respectively. Among them, the leaf is the most widely used part. Six categories of food uses based on the mode of folk edible use were established to classify wild food plants, including wild grain, vegetables, fruit, substitute for tea, seasoning, and snacks. Among them, vegetables were the largest group, followed by plants used as substitute for tea, and plants used for seasoning. Wild plants are usually eaten raw or cooked by the local people. Raw materials and prepared food from wild plants are preserved through the method of pickling and drying. A distinguishing feature of region and ethnic group is that mutton, beef, fresh milk and yoghourt are necessarily used in cooking dish and making milk tea from wild plants by local Mongolians.