1990—2010年淮河流域人类活动净氮输入

1990—2010年,淮河流域粮食产量由6414×10⁴ t增长到10121×10⁴ t(增幅为58%),城市化率由13%增长到35%(涨幅为22%),流域社会经济发生了显著变化.从流域整体定量评估人类活动所带来的生态环境影响将为区域生态环境管理提供科学依据.本文估算淮河流域1990—2010年人类活动净氮输入(NANI)的空间分布及变化趋势.结果表明: 研究期间,淮河流域氮输入量呈现出增加趋势;1990—2001年流域内氮输入量快速增加,2001年后氮输入增加趋势减缓.1990年氮输入量为17232 kg N·km^-2·a^-1,2003年氮输入量最高,为28771 kg N·km^-2·a^-1,2010年回落为26415 kg N·km^-2·a^-1.从氮输入的组成上来看,化肥和大气氮沉降仍然是最主要的输入来源,其次为食品/饲料和生物固氮的输入.化肥和大气沉降输入占总氮输入的比例持续增加,由1990年的64%和16%分别增长至2010年的77%和19%.单纯以增施化肥来实现粮食增产、化石燃料大量燃烧来推动经济发展的观念,应切实转变到改善农业耕种技术、实现新能源的发展轨道上来,进而推动社会经济的可持续发展.     

1990-2010年淮河流域人类活动净氮输入

1990-2010年,淮河流域粮食产量由6414× 104 t增长到10121×104 t(增幅为58％),城市化率由13％增长到35％(涨幅为22％),流域社会经济发生了显著变化.从流域整体定量评估人类活动所带来的生态环境影响将为区域生态环境管理提供科学依据.本文估算淮河流域1990-2010年人类活动净氮输入(NANI)的空间分布及变化趋势.结果表明:研究期间,淮河流域氮输入量呈现出增加趋势;1990-2001年流域内氮输入量快速增加,2001年后氮输入增加趋势减缓.1990年氮输入量为17232 kg N·km-2·a-1,2003年氮输入量最高,为28771kgN·km-2· a-1,2010年回落为26415 kg N·km-2·a-1.从氮输入的组成上来看,化肥和大气氮沉降仍然是最主要的输入来源,其次为食品/饲料和生物固氮的输入.化肥和大气沉降输入占总氮输入的比例持续增加,由1990年的64％和16％分别增长至2010年的77％和19％.单纯以增施化肥来实现粮食增产、化石燃料大量燃烧来推动经济发展的观念,应切实转变到改善农业耕种技术、实现新能源的发展轨道上来,进而推动社会经济的可持续发展.     

河流氮输出对流域人类活动净氮输入的响应研究综述

人类活动引起的生态系统氮输入对水环境有着重要的潜在影响,而目前,我国流域氮污染的研究多从微观角度进行探讨,而从宏观尺度或流域角度诊断流域系统存在的问题研究尚处于起步阶段,直接导致了对流域存在的生态问题把握不清、流域污染程度和潜在污染情况含糊不明.基于此,本文综述了河流氮污染与人类活动氮素输入的响应关系及其影响因素,这对于从流域尺度诊断生态环境、摸清氮流动的过程中自然气候和人类活动扮演的角色及调节过程,并最终提出科学的管理方案具有一定的理论和实际意义.     

滇池流域水文生态系统服务权衡与协同时空异质性及其归因分析

城市化扩张影响流域水文生态系统服务供给,导致水文生态环境压力增加。明晰滇池流域水文生态系统服务权衡与协同关系及归因,对于滇池流域社会经济发展与生态可持续管理的双赢具有重要意义。基于InVEST模型估算了滇池流域2000、2010、2018年碳存储、氮输出、土壤保持和产水量4种水文生态系统服务,分析了水文生态系统服务时空格局变化,利用双变量Moran′s I指数分析了滇池流域水文生态系统服务间时空异质性,通过冗余分析和条件效应分析等方法识别水文生态系统服务归因。结果表明：(1)水文生态系统服务的高值分布与土地利用覆盖有密切关系。(2)水文生态系统服务空间变化主要体现在滇池周边人类活动干扰强烈的区域,表现为氮输出、土壤保持和产水量增加,碳存储减小。(3)水文生态系统服务权衡与协同关系变化明显。碳存储和土壤保持为协同;氮输出和产水量先呈协同后呈权衡;产水量、氮输出均与碳存储和土壤保持为权衡,前者空间变化不明显,后者协同范围扩大,权衡范围缩小。(4)水文生态系统服务主要受多个因素共同影响,主要包括：高程、耕地比例、林地比例、建设用地比例。研究结果可为研究区水文生态系统环境治理和土地利用优化配置...     

惠州地区氮流动力学分析

富营养化是重要的水体污染问题,氮素是富营养化形成的重要因素.采用物流核算的方法研究了中国惠州地区与人类活动有关的氮流在环境系统和人类生产生活系统的状况.采用非点源污染输出系数法定量研究氮流,城市生活污水中氮的排放采用人口氮素摄入 排放法来估算.对惠州地区1998年实测资料氮流过程的统计分析和动力学分析结果表明,该地区主要氮流动力学因素为河流输送、化学肥料和动物饲料输入、人类生产生活、大气氮的转化和沉降、动物排泄物降解挥发以及燃烧过程和其它散发过程中氮的损耗.当年输入本地区的氮素有40%滞留在系统中,这些氮素可能累积从而引发环境问题.河流是系统氮素输出的主要方式,约占57%.同多瑙河和长江流域的比较发现,这3个地区单位面积氮输出量相当,人均氮素贡献率接近.     

北方泥炭地氮素有效性的变化及其对碳汇功能的影响

北方泥炭地是典型的氮限制性生态系统,对全球气候变化及人类活动响应敏感。气候变暖导致内源有效氮增加以及人类活动引起的大量外源氮输入,改变了北方泥炭地氮素有效性,对泥炭地碳氮循环过程及碳汇功能产生了深远影响。本文综述了北方泥炭地碳积累速率和碳汇功能的影响因素,分析了氮沉降、冻融、火烧等因素对北方泥炭地氮素有效性的影响,分别从碳固定和碳排放过程阐述了植物及土壤微生物对氮素有效性变化的响应,并对全球变化影响下泥炭生态系统碳汇功能相关研究进行了展望,以期助力“双碳”目标的实施。     

亚热带典型流域C、N沉降季节变化特征及其耦合输出过程

大气湿沉降是流域生态系统水体中碳氮的重要来源,对生态系统的健康及稳定性有很大的影响。通过对江西千烟洲典型亚热带流域降雨过程的碳、氮湿沉降和径流过程的季节性动态特征进行监测分析,探讨流域沉降、径流输出的C、N耦合及平衡关系。结果表明:千烟洲香溪流域降雨径流中碳氮浓度明显低于雨水,流域大气降水中DOC浓度和TN浓度呈极显著正相关关系。香溪河流域常规水体C:N均值为2.81,远低于根据Redfield比率得出的适宜浮游生物生长的C:N(6.6左右),说明外源性N输入导致该流域水体环境处于N过量的状态,长期输出会提高下游鄱阳湖水系的营养化程度。降雨过程对流域碳输入输出平衡影响较小,对氮输入输出平衡的影响较大。流域湿沉降DOC年输入量为69.41 kg hm-2a-1,TN湿沉降通量为77.23 kg hm-2a-1,碳氮沉降水平受区域降雨量及空气污染情况控制。香溪流域生态系统截留的沉降TN占当地氮肥年均使用量的33.13%,大气降水对亚热带流域生态系统的大量营养物质输入不容忽视。     

氮输入对东北土壤碳蓄积氮素利用效率的影响

由于人类活动影响,通过沉降和施肥方式进入生态系统的活性氮显著增加,其对土壤有机碳库产生重要影响。氮素利用效率(NUE)作为深入理解陆地生态系统碳氮耦合关系的重要参数,对NUE时空规律的研究不仅可以评估目前氮输入对陆地生态系统碳汇增加的贡献,同时也有助于预测未来氮输入情况下陆地生态系统的碳平衡。利用生态系统过程模型——CEVSA2模型的模拟结果,分析了东北地区氮输入情况下,土壤碳的氮素利用效率(SNUE)的时空变化规律及其影响因素,结果表明:(1)1961—2010年,氮输入的显著增加促进了土壤碳的蓄积,但SNUE显著下降;(2)森林的平均SNUE最高,农田最低;灌丛的下降速率最大,森林的SNUE变化趋势最不显著;(3)三江平原和长白山地区以及大小兴安岭的部分地区SNUE最大,其次是辽河平原、松嫩平原地区;内蒙古高原、呼伦贝尔高原地区以及大、小兴安岭的部分地区SNUE出现负值,说明在这些地区,外援氮输入抑制了土壤碳的蓄积;(4)氮输入的空间分异和不同生态系统响应氮输入的差异共同决定了SNUE及其变化的空间格局。该研究结果可为进一步分析不同区域氮促汇潜力和预测未来氮输入情景下的区域碳平衡提供参考。     

黄河流域草地净初级生产力时空动态及其驱动机制

黄河流域是生态系统的敏感区，流域草地生态系统在气候变化和人类活动驱动下发生了显著变化。基于多源遥感影像和气象站点资料等，采用改进后的CASA模型估算2001—2018年黄河流域草地净初级生产力(NPP),评估定量反演结果精度，分析研究时段内流域草地净初级生产力时空动态，探讨气候要素和人类活动对流域草地净初级生产力的影响。结果表明：1)基于改进的CASA模型能够高精度模拟黄河流域草地NPP。2)2001—2018年黄河流域草地NPP呈增加趋势，且在2013年发生突变。2001—2013年气候和人类活动均促进流域草地NPP增加，而2013年后人类活动抑制流域草地NPP增加的作用明显增强，抑制区域面积较前一阶段增加34.89%。整体上，人类活动对草地NPP的影响强度低于气候要素影响强度。3)耕地和建设用地面积的变化，是驱动实际净初级生产力动态的重要人类活动要素。耕地和建设用地面积的增加与草地面积减少、实际净初级生产力增加速率的降低紧密相关。伴随经济发展，应坚持实施退耕还林还草政策，并加强对草地生态保护的监督。     

太湖沉积物有机碳与氮的来源

选取太湖梅梁湾和湖心柱状沉积物,研究了其有机碳同位素（δ13C）和氮同位素（δ15N）、C/N、总有机碳(TOC)、总氮(TN)、总磷（TP）含量,并结合210Pb和137Cs沉积物年代测定技术,探究了近百年太湖沉积物有机质和氮的来源。结果表明：太湖梅梁湾湖区在近百年来,其有机质来源总体以自生为主。50年代以前,湖区受到人类活动的影响较小,沉积物有机质主要来自于湖泊自身水生植物的沉积;50年代到70年代,湖泊内部环境发生变化,湖区逐渐出现藻类大量死亡并沉积的现象,有机质主要来自于水生植物和藻类的共同沉积;70年代到80年代沉积物机质藻类贡献进一步增大;90年代后到现在,则以藻类的沉积为主要来源方式。梅梁湾湖区沉积物氮素的来源在50年代以前主要以流域土壤流失和大型水生植物的死亡为主;50年代到70年代,人类活动的加剧导致大量工业废水、生活污水的输入,藻类开始大面积爆发,氮主要来自于外源的输入、大型植物和藻类的死亡沉积;90年代后到现在,外源氮的输入得到有效地控制,藻类对沉积物氮的贡献相对显著。湖心区域沉积物有机质和氮的来源主要来自于湖泊内部水生植物的沉积。70年代前,沉积物有机质和氮的来源主要来自于水生植物的沉积和水土流失作用;70年代至今,虽然湖泊受到人类活动外源物质输入影响逐渐增大,但总体来讲贡献较小,沉积物有机质和氮的来源仍以湖泊自生为主。     

Anthropogenic nitrogen sources and relationships to riverine nitrogen export in the northeastern U.S.A.

Human activities have greatly altered the nitrogen (N) cycle, accelerating the rate of N fixation in landscapes and delivery of N to water bodies. To examine relationships between anthropogenic N inputs and riverine N export, we constructed budgets describing N inputs and losses for 16 catchments, which encompass a range of climatic variability and are major drainages to the coast of the North Atlantic Ocean along a latitudinal profile from Maine to Virginia. Using data from the early 1990's, we quantified inputs of N to each catchment from atmospheric deposition, application of nitrogenous fertilizers, biological nitrogen fixation, and import of N in agricultural products (food and feed). We compared these inputs with N losses from the system in riverine export.The importance of the relative sources varies widely by catchment and is related to land use. Net atmospheric deposition was the largest N source (>60%) to the forested basins of northern New England (e.g. Penobscot and Kennebec); net import of N in food was the largest source of N to the more populated regions of southern New England (e.g. Charles & Blackstone); and agricultural inputs were the dominant N sources in the Mid-Atlantic region (e.g. Schuylkill & Potomac). Over the combined area of the catchments, net atmospheric deposition was the largest single source input (31%), followed by net imports of N in food and feed (25%), fixation in agricultural lands (24%), fertilizer use (15%), and fixation in forests (5%). The combined effect of fertilizer use, fixation in crop lands, and animal feed imports makes agriculture the largest overall source of N. Riverine export of N is well correlated with N inputs, but it accounts for only a fraction (25%) of the total N inputs. This work provides an understanding of the sources of N in landscapes, and highlights how human activities impact N cycling in the northeast region.     

Where did all the nitrogen go? Fate of nitrogen inputs to large watersheds in the northeastern U.S.A.

To assess the fate of the large amounts of nitrogen (N) brought into the environment by human activities, we constructed N budgets for sixteen large watersheds (475 to 70,189 km²) in the northeastern U.S.A. These watersheds are mainly forested (48–87%), but vary widely with respect to land use and population density. We combined published data and empirical and process models to set up a complete N budget for these sixteen watersheds. Atmospheric deposition, fertilizer application, net feed and food inputs, biological fixation, river discharge, wood accumulation and export, changes in soil N, and denitrification losses in the landscape and in rivers were considered for the period 1988 to 1992. For the whole area, on average 3420 kg of N is imported annually per km² of land. Atmospheric N deposition, N₂ fixation by plants, and N imported in commercial products (fertilizers, food and feed) contributed to the input in roughly equal contributions. We quantified the fate of these inputs by independent estimates of storage and loss terms, except for denitrification from land, which was estimated from the difference between all inputs and all other storage and loss terms. Of the total storage and losses in the watersheds, about half of the N is lost in gaseous form (51%, largely by denitrification). Additional N is lost in riverine export (20%), in food exports (6%), and in wood exports (5%). Change in storage of N in the watersheds in soil organic matter (9%) and wood (9%) accounts for the remainder of the sinks. The presence of appreciable changes in total N storage on land, which we probably under-rather than overestimated, shows that the N budget is not in steady state, so that drainage and denitrification exports of N may well increase further in the future.     

Regional nitrogen budgets and riverine N & P fluxes for the drainages to the North Atlantic Ocean: Natural and human influences

We present estimates of total nitrogen and total phosphorus fluxes in rivers to the North Atlantic Ocean from 14 regions in North America, South America, Europe, and Africa which collectively comprise the drainage basins to the North Atlantic. The Amazon basin dominates the overall phosphorus flux and has the highest phosphorus flux per area. The total nitrogen flux from the Amazon is also large, contributing 3.3 Tg yr^–1 out of a total for the entire North Atlantic region of 13.1 Tg yr^–1 . On a per area basis, however, the largest nitrogen fluxes are found in the highly disturbed watersheds around the North Sea, in northwestern Europe, and in the northeastern U.S., all of which have riverine nitrogen fluxes greater than 1,000 kg N km^–2 yr^–1.Non-point sources of nitrogen dominate riverine fluxes to the coast in all regions. River fluxes of total nitrogen from the temperate regions of the North Atlantic basin are correlated with population density, as has been observed previously for fluxes of nitrate in the world's major rivers. However, more striking is a strong linear correlation between river fluxes of total nitrogen and the sum of anthropogenically-derived nitrogen inputs to the temperate regions (fertilizer application, human-induced increases in atmospheric deposition of oxidized forms of nitrogen, fixation by leguminous crops, and the import/export of nitrogen in agricultural products). On average, regional nitrogen fluxes in rivers are only 25% of these anthropogenically derived nitrogen inputs. Denitrification in wetlands and aquatic ecosystems is probably the dominant sink, with storage in forests perhaps also of importance. Storage of nitrogen in groundwater, although of importance in some localities, is a very small sink for nitrogen inputs in all regions. Agricultural sources of nitrogen dominate inputs in many regions, particularly the Mississippi basin and the North Sea drainages. Deposition of oxidized nitrogen, primarily of industrial origin, is the major control over river nitrogen export in some regions such as the northeastern U.S.Using data from relatively pristine areas as an index of change, we estimate that riverine nitrogen fluxes in many of the temperate regions have increased from pre-industrial times by 2 to 20 fold, although some regions such as northern Canada are relatively unchanged. Fluxes from the most disturbed region, the North Sea drainages, have increased by 6 to 20 fold. Fluxes from the Amazon basin are also at least 2 to 5 fold greater than estimated fluxes from undisturbed temperate-zone regions, despite low population density and low inputs of anthropogenic nitrogen to the region. This suggests that natural riverine nitrogen fluxes in the tropics may be significantly greater than in the temperate zone. However, deforestation may be contributing to the tropical fluxes. In either case, projected increases in fertilizer use and atmospheric deposition in the coming decades are likely to cause dramatic increases in nitrogen loading to many tropical river systems.     

Riverine nitrogen export in Swedish catchments dominated by atmospheric inputs

We present the first estimates of net anthropogenic nitrogen input (NANI) in European boreal catchments. In Swedish catchments, nitrogen (N) deposition is a major N input (31–94%). Hence, we used two different N deposition inputs to calculate NANI for 36 major Swedish catchments. The relationship between riverine N export and NANI was strongest when using only oxidized deposition (NO_y) as atmospheric input (r² = 0.70) rather than total deposition (i.e., both oxidized and reduced nitrogen, NO_y + NH_x deposition, r² = 0.62). The y-intercept (NANI = 0) for the NANI calculated with NO_y is significantly different from zero (p = 0.0042*) and indicates a background flux from the catchment of some 100 kg N km^?2 year^?1 in addition to anthropogenic inputs. This agrees with similar results from North American boreal catchments. The slope of the linear regressions was 0.25 for both N deposition inputs (NO_y and NO_y + NH_x), suggesting that on average, 25% of the anthropogenic N inputs is exported by rivers to the Baltic Sea. Agricultural catchments in central and southern Sweden have increased their riverine N export up to tenfold compared to the inferred background flux. Although the relatively unperturbed northernmost catchments receive significant N loads from atmospheric deposition, these catchments do not show significantly elevated riverine N export. The fact that nitrogen export in Swedish catchments appears to be higher in proportion to NANI at higher loads suggests that N retention may be saturating as loading rates increase. In northern and western Sweden the export of nitrogen is largely controlled by the hydraulic load, i.e., the riverine discharge normalized by water surface area, which has units of distance time^?1. Besides hydraulic load the percent total forest cover also affects the nitrogen export primarily in the northern and western catchments.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus budgets for a tropical watershed impacted by agricultural land use: Guayas, Ecuador

Large-scale changes in land use are occurring in many tropical regions, with significant impacts on nitrogen and phosphorus biogeochemistry. In this study we examine the relationships between land use, anthropogenic nutrient inputs, and riverine nutrient exports in a major agricultural watershed of the Pacific coast of South America, the Guayas River basin of Ecuador. We present comprehensive nutrient budgets for nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) for the Guayas River basin and 10 sub-watersheds. We quantify the four major anthropogenic nutrient fluxes into and out of the region: N and P fertilizer application, N fixation by leguminous crops, net import/export of N and P in agricultural products (food and feed), and atmospheric deposition. We also estimate inputs of N from biological N fixation in forests and of P from weathering sources in soils and bedrock. The sum of these sources represents net inputs of N and P to each watershed region. Overall, synthetic fertilizers are the largest input to the Guayas Basin for N (53%) and P (57%), and the largest outputs are N and P in crops. Losses of N and P in river export account for 14–38% of total N and P inputs, and there is significant accumulation of N and P, or unmeasured forms of N and P export, in most of the sub-basins. Nutrient balances are indicative of the sustainability of land use practices in a region, where a negative balance of N or P indicates nutrient depletion and subsequent loss of soil fertility, yield, and economic viability. Although the nutrient balance of the entire Guayas Basin is positive, there are negative or near zero balances in two sub-watersheds with extensive banana, coffee and permanent crops. In these basins, degradation of soil quality may be occurring due to these net nutrient losses. Our data show that nutrients are leaving the basin primarily as export crops, with riverine losses of nutrients smaller than crop exports. Nonetheless, there is a direct relationship between nutrient inputs and river outputs, suggesting that agricultural management practices in the basin may have direct impacts on N and P delivery to the highly productive Guayas estuary.     

Uneven rise in N inputs to the Lake Michigan Basin over the 20th century corresponds to agricultural and societal transitions

By constructing nitrogen (N) budgets from 1880 to 2002 for watersheds that have undergone urbanization, intensive agricultural specialization or experienced minimal change, we document an uneven timeline of increase in anthropogenic N inputs. N loading to the watersheds of the Lake Michigan Basin grew six-fold from 1880 to 2002, peaking in 1987. Human activities influenced N inputs as early as 1880, and the magnitude and timing of increase differed markedly across regions in accord with population growth, land use, and type of agriculture. The greatest increase occurred from 1950 to 1980, corresponding with rapidly accelerating use of artificial fertilizers, but increases in atmospheric deposition and shifting patterns in crop and livestock production also affected trends. Net anthropogenic N inputs have changed little since about 1980, showing a modest decline due to a leveling out of fertilizer use and greater export of animal feed and products. Using a model that predicts riverine N export from watershed N loadings and river discharge, we found that river TN fluxes from all tributaries increased approximately threefold from 1900 to 2000 but have stabilized or declined over the past two decades, consistent with national surveys that show near-constant or declining riverine TN concentrations. For the LMB, the past two decades has been a period of relative stasis in N inputs to its terrestrial systems and N export from watersheds. This retrospective analysis also points to the challenge of forecasting future trends in N budget terms, which can both increase and decline in response to policy and societal transitions.     

Deforestation of watersheds of Panama: nutrient retention and export to streams

A series of eight watersheds on the Pacific coast of Panama where conversion of mature lowland wet forest to pastures by artisanal burning provided watershed-scale experimental units with a wide range of forest cover (23, 29, 47, 56, 66, 73, 73, 91, and 92 %). We used these watersheds as a landscape-scale experiment to assess effects of degree of deforestation on within-watershed retention and hydrological export of atmospheric inputs of nutrients. Retention was estimated by comparing rainfall nutrient concentrations (volume-weighted to allow for evapotranspiration) to concentrations in freshwater reaches of receiving streams. Retention of rain-derived nutrients in these Panama watersheds averaged 77, 85, 80, and 62 % for nitrate, ammonium, dissolved organic N, and phosphate, respectively. Retention of rain-derived inorganic nitrogen, however, depended on watershed cover: retention of nitrate and ammonium in pasture-dominated watersheds was 95 and 98 %, while fully forested watersheds retained 65 and 80 % of atmospheric nitrate and ammonium inputs. Watershed forest cover did not affect retention of dissolved organic nitrogen and phosphate. Exports from more forested watersheds yielded DIN/P near 16, while pasture-dominated watersheds exported N/P near 2. The differences in magnitude of exports and ratios suggest that deforestation in these Panamanian forests results in exports that affect growth of plants and algae in the receiving stream and estuarine ecosystems. Watershed retention of dissolved inorganic nitrogen calculated from wet plus dry atmospheric deposition varied from 90 % in pasture- to 65 % in forest-dominated watersheds, respectively. Discharges of DIN to receiving waters from the watersheds therefore rose from 10 % of atmospheric inputs for pasture-dominated watersheds, to about 35 % of atmospheric inputs for fully forested watersheds. These results from watersheds with no agriculture or urbanization, but different conversion of forest to pasture by burning, show significant, deforestation-dependent retention within tropical watersheds, but also ecologically significant, and deforestation-dependent, exports that are biologically significant because of the paucity of nutrients in receiving tropical stream and coastal waters.     

Advances in NANI and NAPI accounting for the Baltic drainage basin: spatial and temporal trends and relationships to watershed TN and TP fluxes

In order to assess the progress toward eutrophication management goals, it is important to understand trends in land-based nutrient use. Here we present net anthropogenic nitrogen and phosphorus inputs (NANI and NAPI, respectively) for 2000 and 2010 for the Baltic Sea watershed. Overall, across the entire Baltic, between the 5-year periods centered on 2000 and 2010, NANI and NAPI decreased modestly by ?6 and ?4%, respectively, but with substantial regional variation, including major increases in the Gulf of Riga drainage basin (+19 and +58%, respectively) and decreases in the Danish Straits drainage basin (?25 and ?40% respectively). The changes were due primarily to changes in mineral fertilizer use. Mineral fertilizers dominated inputs, at 57% of both NANI and NAPI in 2000, increasing to 68 and 70%, respectively, by 2010. Net food and feed imports declined over that period, corresponding to increased crop production; either fewer imports of food and feedstocks were required to feed humans and livestock, or more of these commodities were exported. A strong linear relationship exists between regional net nutrient inputs and riverine nutrient fluxes for both periods. About 17% of NANI and 4.7% of NAPI were exported to the sea in 2000; these relationships did not significantly differ from those for 2010. Changes in NANI from 2000 to 2010 across basins were directly proportional rather than linearly related to changes in total N (TN) fluxes to the sea (i.e., no change in NANI suggests no change in TN flux). Similarly, for all basins except those draining to the Baltic Proper, changes in NAPI were proportional to changes in total P (TP) fluxes. The Danish Straits decreased most between 2000 and 2010, where NANI and NAPI declined by 25 and 40%, respectively, and corresponding fluxes of TN and TP declined 31 and 18%, respectively. For the Baltic Proper, NAPI was relatively unchanged between 2000 and 2010, while riverine TP fluxes decreased 25%, due possibly to lagged effects of fertilizer reduction resulting from socio-political changes in the early 1990s or improvements in sewage treatment capabilities. For most regions, further reductions in NANI and NAPI could be achieved by more efficient production and greater substitution of manure for imported mineral fertilizers.     

Nitrogen budget and riverine nitrogen output in a rice paddy dominated agricultural watershed in eastern China

The nitrogen (N) budget calculation approach is a useful means of evaluating the impact of human activity on the N cycle. Field scale N budget calculations may ignore the interactions between landscapes, and regional scale calculations rely on statistical data and indirect parameters. Watershed scale budget calculations allow for a more direct quantification of N inputs and outputs. We conducted N budget calculations for a rice paddy-dominated agricultural watershed in eastern China for 2007?C2009, based on intensive monitoring of stream N dynamics, atmospheric deposition, ammonia (NH₃) volatilization and household interviews about N-related agricultural activities. The results showed that although total N input to the watershed was up to 280 kg N ha^?1 year^?1, riverine discharge was only 4.2 kg N ha^?1 year^?1, accounting for 1.5% of the total N input, and was further reduced to 2.0 kg N ha^?1 year^?1 after reservoir storage and/or denitrification removal. The low riverine N output was because of the characteristics of the rice paddy-dominated landscape, which intercepts run-off and enhances soil denitrification. The watershed actually purified the N in rainwater, as N concentrations in river discharge were much lower than those in rain water. Major N outputs included food/feed export, NH₃ volatilization from chemical fertilizer and manure, and emissions from crop residue burning. Net reactive gaseous emissions (emissions minus deposition) accounted for 5.5% of the total N input, much higher than riverine discharge. Therefore, the agricultural N cycle in such paddy-dominated watersheds impacts the environment mainly through gas exchange rather than water discharge.