铁代谢蛋白在肾脏的表达与功能

最近的研究证实,肾小管细胞具有能力表达包括转铁蛋白受体1(transferrin receptor-1,TfR1)、二价金属离子转运蛋白1(divalent metal transporter-1,DMT1)、膜铁转运蛋白1(ferroportin-1,FPN1)、铁调节蛋白(iron regulatory protein,IRP)和铁调素(hepcidin,Hepc)在内的几乎所有铁代谢蛋白.这些蛋白质的存在以及相关研究显示肾脏可能具有排出多余铁的功能,因此对体铁平衡起有十分重要的作用.     

海帕西啶铁调节和血色素沉着

血色素沉着是一种血浆铁沉积过多而导致的器官损伤性疾病,多种铁调节基因如HFE、HJV、HAMP和TfR2等的突变均可导致该病的发生,其中HAMP是最为重要的一种。HAMP基因编码一种名为海帕西啶的小肽,是小肠铁重吸收和巨噬细胞铁释放的负调节因子。海帕西啶含量的减少将导致血清铁过负荷和血色素沉着的发生,HFE、HJV和TfR2等基因可影响海帕西啶的表达,从而使海帕西啶成为血色素沉着的中央调节者。这些研究对血色素沉着发生机制的理解及其诊断和治疗具有重要意义。     

单核巨噬细胞铁代谢相关蛋白的表达调控

人类机体的铁代谢表现为受限制的对外界铁的吸收和有效的机体内的铁的再循环利用,单核巨噬细胞系统通过吞噬衰老的红细胞,储存和释放铁,在机体铁的循环再利用方面起到了重要的作用。因此,单核巨噬细胞系统对整个机体铁稳态的维持非常重要。近年来,随着转铁蛋白受体1(transferrin receptor1,TfR1)、铁蛋白(ferritin,Fn)、二价金属离子转运蛋白1(divalent metal transporter1,DMT1)、膜铁转运蛋白1(ferroportin1,FPN1),以及铁调素(hepcidin)等在单核巨噬细胞系统中功能和调控机制研究的不断深入,日益加深了人们对单核巨噬细胞系统的铁代谢过程和调控机制的了解。该文综述了铁水平、NO以及炎症等因素对单核巨噬细胞系统TfR1、Fn、DMT1、FPN1、hepcidin等蛋白表达的调控及其机制研究的最新进展。     

铁转运刺激因子研究进展

铁转运刺激因子 (stimulatorofFetransport,SFT)是近年新发现的一个重要的铁代谢蛋白。SFT是一种跨膜糖蛋白 ,含 6个跨膜区域 ,在第一个细胞内环中含有功能上十分重要的REIHE序列。它广泛分布于各组识 ,其主要功能是促进转铁蛋白结合铁和非转铁蛋白结合铁的转运。SFT的基因表达和功能发挥受铁的调控。遗传性血色素沉着病人的肝脏内SFTmRNA的表达显著增加 ,因而SFT超表达可能与遗传性血色素沉着病的形成有关     

膜铁转运蛋白1，铁调素的靶分子？

膜铁转运蛋白1是重要的跨膜铁输出分子,主要分布于十二指肠和单核巨噬系统的细胞膜上,参与机体的肠铁吸收和巨噬细胞对铁的再循环等过程。铁调素是调节机体铁代谢平衡的激素,机体通过肝脏分泌的铁调素对铁转运相关蛋白的表达进行调控,从而实现机体自身的铁稳态。最新研究显示,铁调素的靶分子可能是膜铁转运蛋白1,它通过直接的作用引起膜铁转运蛋白1的内化(internalization)、降解,从而调节其在细胞膜上的表达量,进而控制肠铁吸收和巨噬细胞对铁的再循环过程,以维持机体的铁稳态。     

铁紊乱相关疾病的研究进展

铁作为一种必需的营养元素,在哺乳动物体内的重要作用越来越为人们所重视。动物体内存在着严格的铁代谢调节机制,以确保体内铁始终处于正常生理水平。如果铁代谢失调、体内铁缺乏或过负荷均会导致各种临床疾病。研究发现,肝脏抗菌多肽(hepcidin)很可能是一种控制小肠铁吸收及调节体内铁稳态的关键物质,是一种极为重要的铁调节激素。本文综述了铁的生理作用、铁缺乏引起的疾病(如:缺铁性贫血和儿童神经系统疾病)和铁过负荷引起的疾病(如:肝损伤、心血管疾病、帕金森病和癌症等),并对如何利用现代化技术手段在基因水平开展铁紊乱相关疾病的治疗做了展望。     

毕赤酵母工程菌人hepcidin的纯化及部分铁代谢活性研究

采用摇瓶培养重组毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris)表达并分泌重组人hepcidin至胞外,经等电沉淀,凝胶过滤纯化,电泳检测样品纯度,通过Western blot检测小鼠内皮细胞中hepcidin对GFP-FPN1及TfR1表达的影响.研究发现发酵hepcidin产量达150 mg/L,纯化后经Tricine-SDS-PAGE检测为单一条带,分子质量与理论质量一致,具有抗菌活性,转染内皮细胞证实重组hepcidin可影响内皮细胞GFP-FPN1及TfR1的表达,具有调节铁代谢活性,对研究hepcidin与铁代谢的相关分子吸收机制及药物开发应用奠定了基础,对潜在的医学诊断治疗具有重要意义.     

铁调素调节蛋白(HJV)———一个新的铁代谢调节蛋白

铁调素调节蛋白 (hemojuvelin,HJV) 是最近发现的一种重要的铁代谢调节蛋白. HJV基因突变是年轻型血色素沉着症 (Juvenile hemochromatosis,JH ) 的重要原因之一. 研究显示,HJV可能是一种极为重要的铁调素 (hepcidin) 表达的调节蛋白,通过参与铁调素表达的调节从而在铁代谢中发挥重要作用.     

肝杀菌肽与酒精性肝病相关的铁过剩

酒精性肝病是一种由于过量食用酒精而导致的肝损伤性疾病,该病往往伴发肝脏铁过剩而出现铁沉积,进而导致肝纤维化甚至肝硬化而威胁生命.最新研究发现,酒精性肝病造成的铁过剩是由于一种铁调节激素肝杀菌肽的浓度异常所致,乙醇代谢可以减少肝杀菌肽在肝内的表达,肝杀菌肽浓度降低可使血清铁升高而引发肝脏铁沉积,这项研究为预防和治疗酒精性肝病的相关并发症带来了希望.     

FBXL5:一种维持细胞内铁稳态的泛素连接酶

细胞内铁稳态的维持主要通过铁调节蛋白(ironregulatory protein,IRP)与几种铁代谢基因如转铁蛋白受体和铁蛋白mRNA上铁应答元件结合来实现。铁不足可增加IRP2活性和含量,而铁过载则诱导了IRP2的泛素化和蛋白降解。F-盒蛋白FBXL5是一种铁和氧依赖的E3泛素连接酶,在铁和氧存在的情况下催化IRP2的泛素化,而缺铁或缺氧则造成FBXL5自身被泛素化修饰和随后的蛋白酶体降解。FBXL5铁调节功能的发现使人们对细胞内铁稳态的理解更为清晰。     

Transferrin [corrected] receptor association and endosomal localization of soluble HFE are not sufficient for regulation of cellular iron homeostasis

Iron uptake and storage are tightly regulated to guarantee sufficient iron for essential cellular processes and to prevent the production of damaging free radicals. A non-classical class I MHC molecule, the hemochromatosis factor HFE, has been shown to regulate iron metabolism, potentially via its direct interaction with the transferrin receptor (TfR). In this study, we demonstrate that a soluble beta2microglobulin-HFE monochain (sHFE) folds with beta2microglobulin (beta2m) and associates with the TfR, indicating that the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains are not necessary for assembly and trafficking through the ER-Golgi network. We also demonstrate human TfR-specific uptake and accumulation of extracellular sHFE by treated cells. The sHFE localized to the endosomal compartment albeit we observed variation in the time taken for endosomal trafficking between different cell types. The sHFE monochain was effective in reducing Tf uptake into cells, however this did not correlate to any changes in TfR or ferritin synthesis, in contrast to the HFE-induced increase and decrease of TfR and ferritin, respectively. These findings of incongruent sHFE activity suggest that either variation in affinity binding of sHFE to TfR prevents efficient modulation of iron-regulated proteins or that HFE has multiple functions some of which may be independent of TfR but dependent on interactions within the endosomal compartment for effective modulation of iron metabolism.     

十二指肠上皮细胞转铁蛋白受体表达调控的免疫组织化学观察与铁吸收机制的探讨

转铁蛋白受体（ＴｆＲ）在细胞的铁转运方面起重要作用。本研究用免疫组织化学法比较铁缺乏（甲组）、铁过剩（乙组）与对照组（丙组）Ｗｉｓｔａｒ系大鼠活体十二指肠上皮细胞ＴｆＲ的表达调控及其在铁吸收过程中的意义。结果表明：甲组十二指肠上皮细胞内ＴｆＲ表达明显强于雨组,乙组ＴｆＲ表达最弱。可见ＴｆＲ的表达在一定范围内随体内铁含量的增高或降低而减弱或增强,受铁状态的负调节。丙组ＴｆＲ主要位于细胞基底部,游离面ＴｆＲ表达不明显。甲组细胞ＴｆＲ表达增强,基底部可见线状ＴｆＲ高强度表达。乙组虽ＴｆＲ表达明显减弱,但在细胞基底部仍可见线状ＴｆＲ表达。提示十二指肠上皮细胞基底部有ＴｆＲ介导的铁转运,而铁从上皮的游离面进入细胞内并非由ＴｆＲ介导。三组动物小肠粘膜固有层中均可见ＴｆＲ阳性的巨噬细胞。在铁过剩组、此巨噬细胞数量增加,且ＴｆＲ表达未受明显抑制。认为铁过剩时,粘膜固有层的巨噬细胞内可贮存过量的铁,减少其对实质细胞、组织的损伤。     

Transferrin receptor 2 mediates a biphasic pattern of transferrin uptake associated with ligand delivery to multivesicular bodies

The physiological role of transferrin (Tf) receptor 2 (TfR2), a homolog of the well-characterized TfR1, is unclear. Mutations in TfR2 result in hemochromatosis, indicating that this receptor has a unique role in iron metabolism. We report that HepG2 cells, which endogenously express TfR2, display a biphasic pattern of Tf uptake when presented with ligand concentrations up to 2 µM. The apparently nonsaturating pathway of Tf endocytosis resembles TfR1-independent Tf uptake, a process previously characterized in some liver cell types. Exogenous expression of TfR2 but not TfR1 induces a similar biphasic pattern of Tf uptake in HeLa cells, supporting a role for TfR2 in this process. Immunoelectron microscopy reveals that while Tf, TfR1, and TfR2 are localized in the plasma membrane and tubulovesicular endosomes, TfR2 expression is associated with the additional appearance of Tf in multivesicular bodies. These combined results imply that unlike TfR1, which recycles apo-Tf back to the cell surface after the release of iron, TfR2 promotes the intracellular deposition of ligand. Tf delivered by TfR2 does not appear to be degraded, which suggests that its delivery to this organelle may be functionally relevant to the storage of iron in overloaded states. iron transport; HepG2 cells     

A recycling anti-transferrin receptor-1 monoclonal antibody as an efficient therapy for erythroleukemia through target up-regulation and antibody-dependent cytotoxic effector functions

Targeting transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) with monoclonal antibodies is a promising therapeutic strategy in cancer as tumor cells often overexpress TfR1 and show increased iron needs. We have re-engineered six anti-human TfR1 single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibodies into fully human scFv₂-Fcγ1 and IgG1 antibodies. We selected the more promising candidate (H7), based on its ability to inhibit TfR1-mediated iron-loaded transferrin internalization in Raji cells (B-cell lymphoma). The H7 antibody displayed nanomolar affinity for its target in both formats (scFv₂-Fcγ1 and IgG1), but cross-reacted with mouse TfR1 only in the scFv₂-Fc format. H7 reduced the intracellular labile iron pool and, contrary to what has been observed with previously described anti-TfR1 antibodies, upregulated TfR1 level in Raji cells. H7 scFv₂-Fc format elimination half-life was similar in FcRn knock-out and wild type mice, suggesting that TfR1 recycling contributes to prevent H7 elimination in vivo. In vitro, H7 inhibited the growth of erythroleukemia and B-cell lymphoma cell lines (IC₅₀ 0.1 µg/mL) and induced their apoptosis. Moreover, the Im9 B-cell lymphoma cell line, which is resistant to apoptosis induced by rituximab (anti-CD20 antibody), was sensitive to H7. In vivo, tumor regression was observed in nude mice bearing ERY-1 erythroleukemia cell xenografts treated with H7 through a mechanism that involved iron deprivation and antibody-dependent cytotoxic effector functions. Therefore, targeting TfR1 using the fully human anti-TfR1 H7 is a promising tool for the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma.     

Inactivation of the murine Transferrin Receptor 2 gene using the Cre recombinase: loxP system

Transferrin Receptor 2 (TfR2) is a key molecule involved in the regulation of iron homeostasis. Mutations in TfR2 lead to type 3 hemochromatosis in humans. We have developed mice with a targeted deletion of TfR2. The Cre-recombinase:loxP system used to create the mice allows both full deletion and tissue-specific deletion of TfR2. The development of these mice will provide new models for type 3 hemochromatosis and assist in determining the role of TfR2 in iron metabolism.     

Iron accumulation, iron-mediated toxicity and altered levels of ferritin and transferrin receptor in cultured astrocytes during incubation with ferric ammonium citrate

The cellular uptake and storage of iron have to be tightly regulated in order to provide iron for essential cellular functions while preventing the iron-catalysed generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In contrast to cells in other organs, little is known about the regulation of iron metabolism in brain cells, particularly in astrocytes. To investigate the regulation of iron metabolism in astrocytes we have used primary astrocyte cultures from the brains of newborn rats. After application of ferric ammonium citrate (FAC), cultured astrocytes accumulated iron in a time- (0-48 h) and concentration-dependent (0.01-1 mm) manner. This accumulation was prevented if FAC was applied in combination with the iron-chelator deferoxamine (DFX). Application of FAC to astrocyte cultures caused a strong increase in the cellular content of the iron storage protein ferritin and a decrease in the amount of transferrin receptor (TfR), which is involved in the transferrin-mediated uptake of iron into cells. In contrast, application of DFX strongly increased the level of TfR. Both up-regulation of ferritin content by iron application and up-regulation of TfR content by DFX were prevented by the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX). During incubation of astrocytes with FAC, a mild and transient increase in the extracellular activity of the cytosolic enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and in the concentration of intracellular ROS was observed. In contrast, prevention of protein synthesis by CHX during incubation with FAC resulted in significantly more cell loss and a persistent and intense increase in the production of intracellular ROS. These results demonstrate that both iron accumulation and deprivation modulate the synthesis of ferritin and TfR in astrocytes and that protein synthesis is required to prevent iron-mediated toxicity in astrocytes.     

The Cytoplasmic domain of transferrin receptor 2 dictates its stability and response to holo-transferrin in Hep3B cells

Transferrin receptor 2 (TfR2) is a homolog of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), the receptor responsible for the uptake of iron-loaded transferrin (holo-Tf) into cells. Unlike the ubiquitous TfR1, TfR2 is predominantly expressed in the liver. Mutations in TfR2 gene cause a rare autosomal recessive form of the iron overload disease, hereditary hemochromatosis. Previous studies demonstrated that holo-Tf increases TfR2 levels by stabilizing TfR2 at the protein level. In this study we constructed two chimeras, one of which had the cytoplasmic domain of TfR2 and the remaining portion of TfR1 and the other with the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domain of TfR1 joined to the ectodomain of TfR2. Similar to TfR2, the levels of the chimera containing only the cytoplasmic domain of TfR2 increased in a time- and dose-dependent manner after the addition of holo-Tf to the medium. The half-life of the chimera increased 2.7-fold in cells exposed to holo-Tf like the endogenous TfR2 in HepG2 cells. Like TfR2 and unlike TfR1, the levels of the chimera did not respond to intracellular iron content. These results suggest that although holo-Tf binding to the ectodomain is necessary, the cytoplasmic domain of TfR2 is largely responsible for its stabilization by holo-Tf.     

Defective trafficking and localization of mutated transferrin receptor 2: implications for type 3 hereditary hemochromatosis

Transferrin receptor 2 (TfR2), a homologue of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), is a key molecule involved in the regulation of iron homeostasis. Mutations in TfR2 result in iron overload with similar features to HFE-associated hereditary hemochromatosis. The precise role of TfR2 in iron metabolism and the functional consequences of disease-causing mutations have not been fully determined. We have expressed wild-type and various mutant forms of TfR2 that are associated with human disease in a mouse liver cell line. Intracellular and surface analysis shows that all the TfR2 mutations analyzed cause the intracellular retention of the protein in the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas the wild-type protein is expressed in endocytic structures and at the cell surface. Our results indicate that the majority of mutations that cause type 3 hereditary hemochromatosis are a consequence of the defective localization of the protein.     

Characterization of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase as a novel transferrin receptor

A majority of cells obtain of transferrin (Tf) bound iron via transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) or by transferrin receptor 2 (TfR2) in hepatocytes. Our study establishes that cells are capable of acquiring transferrin iron by an alternate pathway via GAPDH.These findings demonstrate that upon iron depletion, GAPDH functions as a preferred receptor for transferrin rather than TfR1 in some but not all cell types. We utilized CHO-TRVb cells that do not express TfR1 or TfR2 as a model system. A knockdown of GAPDH in these cells resulted in a decrease of not only transferrin binding but also associated iron uptake. The current study also demonstrates that, unlike TfR1 and TfR2 which are localized to a specific membrane fraction, GAPDH is located in both the detergent soluble and lipid raft fractions of the cell membrane. Further, transferrin uptake by GAPDH occurs by more than one mechanism namely clathrin mediated endocytosis, lipid raft endocytosis and macropinocytosis. By determining the kinetics of this pathway it appears that GAPDH-Tf uptake is a low affinity, high capacity, recycling pathway wherein transferrin is catabolised. Our findings provide an explanation for the detailed role of GAPDH mediated transferrin uptake as an alternate route by which cells acquire iron.