盐胁迫下甜菜碱的生物合成及植物耐盐的分子机制（综述）

甜菜碱是一种无毒的渗透调节剂.在盐胁迫下,植物体内迅速积累甜菜碱等小分子化合物以维持细胞内外的渗透平衡,从而维持细胞正常的生理功能.本文对甜菜碱的生理作用、生物合成、基因工程及植物抗盐的分子机制作一综述,为培育理想的耐盐植物新品系提供参考.     

外源甜菜碱与植物抗逆性

甜菜碱是一种季铵型生物碱,广泛存在于动物、植物和微生物体内.甜菜碱在高等植物体内是一种重要的非毒性渗透调节物质,具有稳定生物大分子的结构和功能以及降低逆境条件下渗透失水对细胞膜、酶及蛋白质结构与功能的伤害,从而提高植物对各种胁迫因子的抗性.该文对外源甜菜碱以不同的作用方式(灌根、浸种、喷施叶片)作用于逆境(如干旱、盐碱等)条件下的作物并提高作物抗逆性能进行了综述,经过全面系统的讨论,阐明外源甜菜碱提高逆境下作物抗逆的机理,为甜菜碱的农业利用提供理论依据.     

植物甜菜碱合成途径及基因工程研究进展

甜菜碱是公认的在细胞中起着无毒渗透保护作用的细胞相溶性物质 ,广泛存在于植物、动物、细菌等多种生物体中。植物中甜菜碱因其结构不同 ,其生物合成途径和催化合成所需要的酶也各不相同。综述了近年来甜菜碱生物合成途径、相关基因的克隆及基因工程研究进展 ,包括从不同生物体中克隆、鉴定的甜菜碱合成的相关基因及其定位、作用机理、同源性比较及表达差异、在转基因植物中的遗传稳定性以及转基因植物的抗盐耐旱、抗寒性等。     

甜菜碱与植物耐盐基因工程

向非甜菜碱积累植物导入甜菜碱合成途径是提高植物耐盐性的策略之一。甜菜碱是一种无毒的有机小分子化合物。盐胁迫下,它能在植物细胞中迅速积累以维持细胞的渗透平衡,并对胞内的一些重要酶类起保护作用。编码甜菜碱合成酶的基因已被克隆,并应用于植物耐盐基因工程。本文介绍了甜菜碱的生理作用、合成酶及相关基因的特性,并结合本实验室的工作对甜菜碱基因工程及其进展作了简单的综述。     

甜菜碱与植物耐盐基因工程

向非甜菜碱积累植物导入甜菜碱合成途径是提高植物耐盐性的策略之一。甜菜碱是一种无毒的有机小分子化合物。盐胁迫下 ,它能在植物细胞中迅速积累以维持细胞的渗透平衡 ,并对胞内的一些重要酶类起保护作用。编码甜菜碱合成酶的基因已被克隆 ,并应用于植物耐盐基因工程。本文介绍了甜菜碱的生理作用、合成酶及相关基因的特性 ,并结合本实验室的工作对甜菜碱基因工程及其进展作了简单的综述     

植物磷酸乙醇胺N-甲基转移酶的研究进展

甘氨酸甜菜碱是一种渗透调节物质,能够维持高盐浓度下细胞的渗透平衡和膜的有序性,并有效地稳定酶的结构;胆碱是甘氨酸甜菜碱生物合成的必要前体物质,而磷酸乙醇胺甲基转移酶（phosphoethanolamineN-methyltransferase,PEAMT）作为甲基转移酶,是催化磷酸乙醇胺三次甲基化生成胆碱的限速酶。近年来研究表明磷酸乙醇胺甲基转移酶不仅在植物生长发育过程发挥作用,而且通过参与渗调物质甜菜碱以及胁迫相关第二信使磷脂酸的合成从而使植物对盐胁迫产生应答反应。本文就植物磷酸乙醇胺甲基转移酶的反应作用机理、生物学功能及表达调控机制进行了归纳总结。     

甜菜碱和甜菜碱合成酶

就重要的渗透调节剂甜菜碱在高等植物中的分布、诱导积累和生物合成,以及甜菜碱合成酶的分子生物学研究的历史和进展作了扼要综述。甜菜碱是一种非毒性的渗透调节剂。植物、微生物、海洋无脊椎动物、海藻、真菌和细菌中都有存在。许多高等植物,特别是会科和禾本科植物,在受到水／盐胁迫时积累大量甜菜碱。甜菜碱生物合成的调节控制及其相应的遗传操作的研究,对认识植物的渗透调节机理和培育高抗盐抗旱作物品种有重要意义。     

植物甜菜碱合成酶的分子生物学和基因工程

甜菜碱是一种非毒性的渗透调节剂,多种高等植物在盐碱或缺水的环境下在细胞中积累甜菜碱,以维持细胞的正常膨压,甜菜碱的积累使得许多代谢中的重要酶类在渗透胁迫下能保持活性,在植物中甜菜碱由胆碱经两步氧化得到,催化第一步反应的酶是胆碱单加氧酶（CMO）,催化第二步反应的酶是甜菜碱醛脱氢酶（BADH）。本文综述了这两种酶的分子生物学及基因工程研究的最新进展,讨论了基因工程研究的意义。     

植物甜菜碱合成酶的分子生物学和基因工程

甜菜碱是一种非毒性的渗透调节剂。多种高等植物在盐碱或缺水的环境下在细胞中积累甜菜碱 ,以维持细胞的正常膨压。甜菜碱的积累使得许多代谢中的重要酶类在渗透胁迫下能保持活性。在植物中甜菜碱由胆碱经两步氧化得到 ,催化第一步反应的酶是胆碱单加氧酶 (CMO) ,催化第二步反应的酶是甜菜碱醛脱氢酶 (BADH)。本文综述了这两种酶的分子生物学及基因工程研究的最新进展 ,讨论了其基因工程研究的意义。     

大肠杆菌基因拯救盐致死烟草

已经建立了改革现代耕种技术的方法,但这一方法仍限制了许多不适于上述操作的作物。例如,大面积的灌溉提高了土壤中的盐度,很多植物不能处理所有的盐。 象烟草这样的植物缺乏天然的“渗透保护剂”,或者能帮助植物细胞保持水分并排除盐分的分子。糖和乙醇是渗透保护剂,甘氨酸甜菜碱在某些植物(如菠菜)和细菌中可被高盐度、干旱或低温所产生的水压诱     

Identification of bacterial periplasmic glycine betaine-binding protein after electrophoresis and affinity labeling

Antibodies were elicited in rabbits against periplasmic proteins obtained by cold osmotic shock from the Gram-negative eubacterium Rhizobium meliloti. When analyzed by crossed immunoelectrophoresis (CIE), the periplasmic proteins gave rise to 20 distinct immunoprecipitates corresponding to the same number of bands in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) under non-denaturing conditions and in SDS-PAGE. The periplasmic glycine betaine-binding protein (GB-BP) was identified by autoradiography after affinity labeling with [14C]glycine betaine in PAGE and in CIE gels. The binding proved to be quite specific to glycine betaine, since the GB-BP was not labeled by choline (a metabolic precursor of glycine betaine in Escherichia coli and Rhizobium meliloti) and 15 distinct L-amino acids, including L-proline which, like glycine betaine is also an osmoprotectant. Affinity labeling of the GB-BP with [14C]glycine betaine after protein separation by PAGE or CIE is a simple and sensitive technique permitting the GB-BP to the unambiguously detected and identified in samples of complex protein mixtures containing down to 2 micrograms of GB-BP in PAGE and only 0.2 micrograms in CIE.     

Choline-glycine betaine pathway confers a high level of osmotic tolerance in Escherichia coli.

Glycine betaine and its precursors choline and glycine betaine aldehyde have been found to confer a high level of osmotic tolerance when added exogenously to cultures of Escherichia coli at an inhibitory osmotic strength. In this paper, the following findings are described. Choline works as an osmoprotectant only under aerobic conditions, whereas glycine betaine aldehyde and glycine betaine function both aerobically and anaerobically. No endogenous glycine betaine accumulation was detectable in osmotically stressed cells grown in the absence of the osmoprotectant itself or the precursors. A membrane-bound, O2-dependent, and electron transfer-linked dehydrogenase was found which oxidized choline to glycine betaine aldehyde and aldehyde to glycine betaine at nearly the same rate. It displayed Michaelis-Menten kinetics; the apparent Km values for choline and glycine betaine aldehyde were 1.5 and 1.6 mM, respectively. Also, a soluble, NAD-dependent dehydrogenase oxidized glycine betaine aldehyde. It displayed Michaelis-Menten kinetics; the apparent Km values for the aldehyde, NAD, and NADP were 0.13, 0.06, and 0.5 mM, respectively. The choline-glycine betaine pathway was osmotically regulated, i.e., full enzymic activities were found only in cells grown aerobically in choline-containing medium at an elevated osmotic strength. Chloramphenicol inhibited the formation of the pathway in osmotically stressed cells.     

Protection of Bacillus subtilis against cold stress via compatible-solute acquisition

Accumulation of compatible solutes is a strategy widely employed by bacteria to achieve cellular protection against high osmolarity. These compounds are also used in some microorganisms as thermostress protectants. We found that Bacillus subtilis uses the compatible solute glycine betaine as an effective cold stress protectant. Glycine betaine strongly stimulated growth at 15°C and permitted cell proliferation at the growth-inhibiting temperature of 13°C. Initial uptake of glycine betaine at 15°C was low but led eventually to the buildup of an intracellular pool whose size was double that found in cells grown at 35°C. Each of the three glycine betaine transporters (OpuA, OpuC, and OpuD) contributed to glycine betaine accumulation in the cold. Protection against cold stress was also accomplished when glycine betaine was synthesized from its precursor choline. Growth of a mutant defective in the osmoadaptive biosynthesis for the compatible solute proline was not impaired at low temperature (15°C). In addition to glycine betaine, the compatible solutes and osmoprotectants l-carnitine, crotonobetaine, butyrobetaine, homobetaine, dimethylsulfonioactetate, and proline betaine all served as cold stress protectants as well and were accumulated via known Opu transport systems. In contrast, the compatible solutes and osmoprotectants choline-O-sulfate, ectoine, proline, and glutamate were not cold protective. Our data highlight an underappreciated facet of the acclimatization of B. subtilis to cold environments and allow a comparison of the characteristics of compatible solutes with respect to their osmotic, heat, and cold stress-protective properties for B. subtilis cells.     

Glycine betaine confers enhanced osmotolerance and cryotolerance on Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria monocytogenes is a gram-positive food-borne pathogen that is notably resistant to osmotic stress and can grow at refrigerator temperatures. These two characteristics make it an insidious threat to public health. Like several other organisms, L. monocytogenes accumulates glycine betaine, a ubiquitous and effective osmolyte, intracellularly when grown under osmotic stress. However, it also accumulates glycine betaine when grown under chill stress at refrigerator temperatures. Exogenously added glycine betaine enhances the growth rate of stressed but not unstressed cells, i.e., it confers both osmotolerance and cryotolerance. Both salt-stimulated and cold-stimulated accumulation of glycine betaine occur by transport from the medium rather than by biosynthesis. Direct measurement of glycine betaine uptake shows that cells transport betaine 200-fold faster at high salt concentration (4% NaCl) than without added salt and 15-fold faster at 7 than at 30 degrees C. The kinetics of glycine betaine transport suggest that the two transport systems are indistinguishable in terms of affinity for betaine and may be the same. Hyperosmotic shock and cold shock experiments suggest the transport system(s) to be constitutive; activation was not blocked by chloramphenicol. A cold-activated transport system is a novel observation and has intriguing implications concerning the physical state of the cell membrane at low temperature.     

Osmotic control of glycine betaine biosynthesis and degradation in Rhizobium meliloti.

Intracellular accumulation of glycine betaine has been shown to confer an enhanced level of osmotic stress tolerance in Rhizobium meliloti. In this study, we used a physiological approach to investigate the mechanism by which glycine betaine is accumulated in osmotically stressed R. meliloti. Results from growth experiments, 14C labeling of intermediates, and enzyme activity assays are presented. The results provide evidence for the pathway of biosynthesis and degradation of glycine betaine and the osmotic effects on this pathway. High osmolarity in the medium decreased the activities of the enzymes involved in the degradation of glycine betaine but not those of enzymes that lead to its biosynthesis from choline. Thus, the concentration of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine is increased in stressed cells. This report demonstrates the ability of the osmolarity of the growth medium to regulate the use of glycine betaine as a carbon and nitrogen source or as an osmoprotectant. The mechanisms of osmoregulation in R. meliloti and Escherichia coli are compared.     

Fate of compatible solutes during dilution stress in Ectothiorhodospira halochloris

Abstract Ectothiorhodospira halochloris reacts upon enhancement of the water activity in the environment by excreting its major compatible solute, glycine betaine, thus decreasing the osmotic pressure inside the cell. A suddenly induced dilution stress leads to an overshoot of this reaction, so that more glycine betaine than necessary to compensate the external osmotic change is released. Subsequently the cells take up glycine betaine until they reach osmotic balance with the medium. E. halochloris possesses an active transport system that allows an uptake of glycine betaine against a concentration gradient. Glycine betaine is not metabolized in E. halochloris . Ectoine, a minor compatible solute of E. halochloris , is excreted in a similar manner to that of glycine betaine during dilution stress, whereas no excretion of the third compatible solute, trehalose, was detected.