病毒致瘤蛋白对肿瘤微环境的改造

致瘤病毒感染宿主后,相关的病毒蛋白通过"劫持"宿主细胞的生命机器,经历多阶段和涉及多因子的一系列复杂的转化和演变,最终导致细胞的癌变.在这一过程中,病毒因素始终与感染细胞微环境发生互作(包括细胞成分如免疫细胞、成纤维细胞等,以及非细胞成分如细胞因子等),从而促进感染细胞的免疫逃逸和肿瘤细胞的发生发展.本文以HPV、EBV、HBV为例,综述病毒蛋白影响肿瘤微环境的具体机制和最新研究进展,分析该领域面临的问题和前景.     

综述: 病毒与宿主细胞的糖基化修饰及相关功能

病毒的复制和对宿主的入侵与自身结构蛋白的糖基化修饰密切相关．对于宿主而言,在病毒感染宿主和宿主抗病毒的过程中,宿主的糖基化过程一方面可抑制病毒的复制和入侵,另一方面可促进病毒对宿主的感染,抑制宿主糖苷酶可抑制病毒的复制．从病毒方面来看,由于病毒自身缺乏糖基化修饰系统,病毒的糖基化过程是借宿主细胞内的合成系统对自身进行糖基化修饰．病毒的糖基化过程对病毒蛋白的折叠与稳定、病毒的感染和入侵、参与识别宿主细胞受体和参与病毒的免疫逃逸等过程起着重要的作用．随着糖基化研究技术的发展,以糖基化为基础的功能应用也越来越深入：如新型病毒疫苗和新型抗病毒药物的研制,以糖蛋白质组学研究为基础的质谱技术和生物信息学方法的发展,以及利用糖基化对病毒性疾病的诊断和治疗等,这些均为糖基化深入研究发展奠定了基础．本文就病毒与宿主细胞糖基化过程、相关功能以及研究应用等进展作一综述．     

人乳头瘤病毒致癌蛋白E6的结构与功能研究进展

人乳头瘤病毒(Human papillomavirus,HPV)是一类无包膜的小DNA病毒,主要感染人皮肤上皮细胞和黏膜,持续感染HPV会引起良性和恶性肿瘤,如尖锐湿疣和宫颈癌等多种疾病。HPV早期蛋白E6是引起宿主细胞发生恶性转化的关键致癌蛋白,其参与调节宿主细胞内多个关键的生理生化过程,如促使抑癌蛋白p53的降解、激活端粒酶和降解细胞凋亡相关蛋白Bak(Bcl-2 homologous antagonist/killer)等,进而干扰宿主细胞的生长因子依赖性、细胞凋亡、细胞转录、DNA损伤反应、细胞周期和宿主细胞分化等一系列生命活动。因此,分析阐述HPV致癌蛋白E6的结构与功能,有助于阐明HPV诱发宫颈癌等恶性肿瘤的分子机理,为今后设计治疗性HPV疫苗奠定理论基础。本文就HPV致癌蛋白E6的结构及其生物学功能进行综述。     

细小病毒非结构蛋白诱导细胞凋亡研究进展

迄今,据最新报道可感染哺乳动物和禽类的细小病毒有17余种。被感染细胞常出现不同程度的凋亡和坏死,呈现典型以细胞折光性增强、圆缩直至溶解脱落等为特征的细胞病变。NS1蛋白是细小病毒主要的非结构蛋白,其结构和功能保守,在病毒生命周期与感染宿主中扮演重要角色。它不仅影响病毒复制,还参与诱导宿主细胞凋亡。细小病毒NS1蛋白主要经由线粒体途径诱导被感染宿主细胞发生凋亡,本文全面归纳与总结细小病毒NS1蛋白诱导细胞凋亡的分子机制的最新研究进展。     

病毒蛋白质组学: 病毒学研究前沿

病毒寄生于宿主细胞中, 需要不断地适应和改变宿主的环境. 它们能够编码多种多功能蛋白质, 这些蛋白能与宿主蛋白发生一系列的相互作用以完成病毒的各种功能. 迄今, 尽管许多病毒的基因组已测序完成, 但由于受到病毒影响而发生相应改变的宿主蛋白组、宿主蛋白翻译后修饰, 以及蛋白酶剪接过程还未被完全阐明. 近年来新兴的高通量技术, 如基于质谱技术的定量或半定量蛋白组方法, 已被广泛应用于病毒宿主相互作用的研究中, 且有望在上述领域取得突破性进展. 本综述主要探讨蛋白质组学研究中的病毒颗粒蛋白质组学, 病毒结构蛋白质组学和病毒影响的宿主蛋白质组学等病毒蛋白质组学中的前沿领域.     

CAR-T免疫细胞疗法在抗病毒感染中的研究进展

目前,世界上大多数病毒感染没有针对性的特效药,尤其是具有潜伏感染能力的病毒,如乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus, HBV)、巨细胞病毒(cytomegalovirus, CMV)、Epstein-Barr病毒(epstein-barr virus,EBV)、人类免疫缺陷病毒(human immunodeficiency virus, HIV)等,严重威胁人类健康。这些病毒感染宿主细胞后,与宿主蛋白互作,导致宿主细胞在其表面表达一些特异性的感染或潜伏标志蛋白,可以成为CAR-T细胞疗法(chimeric antigen receptor T-cell immunotherapy, CAR-T)的靶点,为难治性病毒性疾病的治愈提供了新的方向。     

人巨细胞病毒潜伏感染机制的研究进展

人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)的潜伏感染在人群中极为普遍。在儿科学领域,潜伏感染的巨细胞病毒激活后,可能导致死胎、流产、胎儿畸形、生长发育迟缓等一系列严重后果。在病毒潜伏感染过程中,机体会通过免疫反应或诱导宿主细胞凋亡等方式清除病毒。然而,在病毒与宿主共同进化的漫长过程中,病毒会调控自身基因的表达、宿主细胞微环境及免疫杀伤作用,从而达到与长期宿主共存的目的。目前研究揭示,HCMV的潜伏感染可能与病毒立即早期启动子沉默、病毒干扰宿主细胞凋亡、病毒免疫逃逸及非编码RNA调控机制有关。本文将从以上四个方面对HCMV潜伏感染相关机制的研究进展进行总结。     

冠状病毒的基因组结构及特征

冠状病毒(Coronavirus)是具有包膜的正单链RNA病毒,基因组大小介于26 000与32 000 nt之间,编码刺突蛋白(S)、包膜蛋白(E)、膜蛋白(M)和核壳蛋白(N)等四种结构蛋白、复制酶(ORF1a/b)与若干辅助蛋白,部分病毒还具有血细胞凝集素酯酶(HE),这些蛋白除维持病毒结构,还有促进感染与抵抗宿主免疫反应等功能,其中刺突蛋白可与宿主细胞表面的受体结合,使病毒包膜和宿主细胞的膜融合以感染细胞.冠状病毒的感染会影响细胞的许多信号转导途径,引发免疫反应,是一类可感染哺乳动物与鸟类的病毒.     

宿主细胞膜骨架蛋白在病毒感染复制中作用的研究进展

病毒与宿主细胞之间相互关系的研究不仅具有重要的理论意义,也是重大的医学实践课题.病毒可以与宿主蛋白相互作用并改变细胞的正常功能,从而促进病毒的感染与复制.宿主细胞膜骨架蛋白在病毒的生命周期中起着重要作用,研究表明细胞膜骨架蛋白参与了病毒的感染及复制,尽管许多精细机制尚不清楚,但这扩展了人们对细胞膜骨架蛋白功能的理解.本文重点介绍宿主细胞膜骨架蛋白如肌动蛋白、血影蛋白在病毒进入、细胞内运输、组装和释放等病毒感染复制过程中的作用.     

埃巴病毒潜伏膜蛋白的研究进展

埃巴病毒(Epstein-Barr Virus, EBV)是一种在人群中感染率高达90%的γ-疱疹病毒,其感染宿主细胞后常以潜伏形式存在并伴随终生,在一定条件诱导下,由潜伏感染转化为裂解感染,导致多种恶性肿瘤的发生。LMP1和LMP2是EBV编码的重要潜伏膜蛋白,它们锚定于细胞膜脂筏区,通过与宿主细胞内多种信号传递分子如TRAF家族蛋白、Caspase家族蛋白和STAT家族等相互作用,参与细胞内多条信号转导通路,进而影响细胞迁移与凋亡,与淋巴组织增生性疾病和恶性肿瘤的发生有着密切联系。本文阐述了LMP1和LMP2的结构特征,在宿主细胞内的基因表达调控及参与信号转导途径的机制等,旨在推进EBV发病机理研究及疫苗的研发等科研进展。     

Modulation of radiation sensitivity and antitumor immunity by viral pathogenic factors: Implications for radio-immunotherapy

Several DNA viruses including Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) are mechanistically associated with the development of human cancers (HPV, EBV) and/or modulation of the immune system (HCMV). Moreover, a number of distinct mechanisms have been described regarding the modulation of tumor cell response to ionizing radiation and evasion from the host immune system by viral factors. There is further accumulating interest in the treatment with immune-modulatory therapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors for malignancies with a viral etiology. Also, patients with HPV-positive tumors have a significantly improved prognosis that is attributable to increased intrinsic radiation sensitivity and may also arise from modulation of a cytotoxic T cell response in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this review, we will highlight recent advances in the understanding of the biological basis of radiation response mediated by viral pathogenic factors and evasion from and modulation of the immune system by viruses.     

Oncogenic effects of exosomes in γ-herpesvirus-associated neoplasms

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) are herpesviruses associated with human malignancies. As exosomes can shuttle many herpesvirus-associated biomolecules from host cells to recipient cells, the exosomal pathway is utilized by herpesviruses to achieve extensive infections and even oncogenesis. In this review, we discuss the oncogenic biomolecules present in exosomes derived from KSHV- and EBV-infected cells. Moreover, oncogenesis via exosomal biomolecules mainly occurs through three processes, including regulation of downstream signals, promotion of immune dysfunction and transformation of cells. Also, the exosomes may provide diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets specific for KSHV- and EBV-associated malignancies.     

The roles of mast cells in anticancer immunity

The tumor microenvironment (TME), which is composed of stromal cells such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells, provides a supportive niche promoting the growth and invasion of tumors. The TME also raises an immunosuppressive barrier to effective antitumor immune responses and is therefore emerging as a target for cancer immunotherapies. Mast cells (MCs) accumulate in the TME at early stages, and their presence in the TME is associated with poor prognosis in many aggressive human cancers. Some well-established roles of MCs in cancer are promoting angiogenesis and tumor invasion into surrounding tissues. Several mouse models of inducible and spontaneous cancer show that MCs are among the first immune cells to accumulate within and shape the TME. Although MCs and other suppressive myeloid cells are associated with poor prognosis in human cancers, high densities of intratumoral T effector (T(eff)) cells are associated with a favorable prognosis. The latter finding has stimulated interest in developing therapies to increase intratumoral T cell density. However, cellular and molecular mechanisms promoting high densities of intratumoral T(eff) cells within the TME are poorly understood. New evidence suggests that MCs are essential for shaping the immune-suppressive TME and impairing both antitumor T(eff) cell responses and intratumoral T cell accumulation. These roles for MCs warrant further elucidation in order to improve antitumor immunity. Here, we will summarize clinical studies of the prognostic significance of MCs within the TME in human cancers, as well as studies in mouse models of cancer that reveal how MCs are recruited to the TME and how MCs facilitate tumor growth. Also, we will summarize our recent studies indicating that MCs impair generation of protective antitumor T cell responses and accumulation of intratumoral T(eff) cells. We will also highlight some approaches to target MCs in the TME in order to unleash antitumor cytotoxicity.     

Oncolytic Immunotherapy: Can’t Start a Fire Without a Spark

Recent advances in cancer immunotherapy have renewed interest in oncolytic viruses (OVs) as a synergistic platform for the development of novel antitumor strategies. Cancer cells adopt multiple mechanisms to evade and suppress antitumor immune responses, essentially establishing a non-immunogenic (‘cold’) tumor microenvironment (TME), with poor T-cell infiltration and low mutational burden. Limitations to the efficacy of immunotherapy still exist, especially for a variety of solid tumors, where new approaches are necessary to overcome physical barriers in the TME and to mitigate adverse effects associated with current immunotherapeutics. OVs offer an attractive alternative by inducing direct oncolysis, immunogenic cell death, and immune stimulation. These multimodal mechanisms make OVs well suited to reprogram non-immunogenic tumors and TME into inflamed, immunogenic (‘hot’) tumors; enhanced release of tumor antigens by dying cancer cells is expected to augment T-cell infiltration, thereby eliciting potent antitumor immunity. Advances in virus engineering and understanding of tumor biology have allowed the optimization of OV-tumor selectivity, oncolytic potency, and immune stimulation. However, OV antitumor activity is likely to achieve its greatest potential as part of combinatorial strategies with other immune or cancer therapeutics.     

A t(3;8) chromosomal translocation associated with hepatitis B virus intergration involves the carboxypeptidase N locus.

Integrated hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA is found in the great majority of human hepatocellular carcinomas, suggesting that these viral integrations may be implicated in liver oncogenesis. Besides the insertional mutagenesis characterized in a few selected cases and the contribution of viral transactivators to cell transformation to malignancy, HBV has been shown to generate gross chromosomal rearrangements potentially involved in carcinogenesis. Here, we report a t(3;8) chromosomal translocation present in a hepatocellular carcinoma developed in noncirrhotic liver tissue. One side of the translocation, in 8p23, is shown to be in the vicinity of the carboxypeptidase N gene, a locus that is heavily transcribed in liver tissue and frequently deleted in hepatocellular carcinomas and other epithelial tumors. The other side of the translocation, in 3q27-29, is widely implicated in several types of translocations occurring in different malignancies, such as large-cell lymphomas. The present data strongly support a model in which HBV-induced chromosomal rearrangements play a key role during multistep liver oncogenesis.     

Targeting amphiregulin (AREG) derived from senescent stromal cells diminishes cancer resistance and averts programmed cell death 1 ligand (PD‐L1)‐mediated immunosuppression

Aging is characterized by a progressive loss of physiological integrity, while cancer represents one of the primary pathological factors that severely threaten human lifespan and healthspan. In clinical oncology, drug resistance limits the efficacy of most anticancer treatments, and identification of major mechanisms remains a key to solve this challenging issue. Here, we highlight the multifaceted senescence‐associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which comprises numerous soluble factors including amphiregulin (AREG). Production of AREG is triggered by DNA damage to stromal cells, which passively enter senescence in the tumor microenvironment (TME), a process that remarkably enhances cancer malignancy including acquired resistance mediated by EGFR. Furthermore, paracrine AREG induces programmed cell death 1 ligand (PD‐L1) expression in recipient cancer cells and creates an immunosuppressive TME via immune checkpoint activation against cytotoxic lymphocytes. Targeting AREG not only minimized chemoresistance of cancer cells, but also restored immunocompetency when combined with classical chemotherapy in humanized animals. Our study underscores the potential of in vivo SASP in driving the TME‐mediated drug resistance and shaping an immunosuppressive niche, and provides the proof of principle of targeting major SASP factors to improve therapeutic outcome in cancer medicine, the success of which can substantially reduce aging‐related morbidity and mortality.     

Fibroblast heterogeneity in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Perspectives in immunotherapy

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the key component in pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME), originate from many sources and are naturally heterogeneous in phenotype and function. Numerous studies have identified their crucial role in promoting tumorigenesis through many routes including fostering cancer proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Conversely, research also indicates that subsets of CAFs express anti-tumor activity. These dual effects reflect the complexity of CAF heterogeneity and their interactions with other cells and factors in pancreatic TME. A critical component in this environment is infiltrated immune cells and immune mediators, which can communicate with CAFs. The crosstalk occurs via the production of various cytokines, chemokines, and other mediators and shapes the immunological state in TME. Comprehensive studies of the crosstalk between CAFs and tumor immune environment, particularly internal mechanisms interlinking CAFs and immune effectors, may provide new approaches for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) treatments. In this review, we explore the characteristics of CAFs, describe the interplay among CAFs, infiltrated immune cells, other mediators, and provide an overview of recent CAF-target therapies, their limitations, and potential research directions in CAF in the context of PDAC.     

Interaction of tumour cells with their microenvironment: ion channels and cell adhesion molecules. A focus on pancreatic cancer

Cancer must be viewed as a ‘tissue’, constituted of both transformed cells and a heterogeneous microenvironment, the ‘tumour microenvironment’ (TME). The TME undergoes a complex remodelling during the course of multistep tumourigenesis, hence strongly contributing to tumour progression. Ion channels and transporters (ICTs), being expressed on both tumour cells and in the different cellular components of the TME, are in a strategic position to sense and mediate signals arising from the TME. Often, this transmission is mediated by integrin adhesion receptors, which are the main cellular receptors capable of mediating cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix bidirectional signalling. Integrins can often operate in conjunction with ICT because they can behave as functional partners of ICT proteins. The role of integrin receptors in the crosstalk between tumour cells and the TME is particularly relevant in the context of pancreatic cancer (PC), characterized by an overwhelming TME which actively contributes to therapy resistance. We discuss the possibility that this occurs through integrins and ICTs, which could be exploited as targets to overcome chemoresistance in PC.     

Focus on mast cells in the tumor microenvironment: Current knowledge and future directions

Mast cells (MCs) are crucial cells participating in both innate and adaptive immune processes that play important roles in protecting human health and in the pathophysiology of various diseases, such as allergies, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune diseases. In the context of tumors, MCs are a non-negligible population of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In most tumor types, MCs accumulate in both the tumor tissue and the surrounding tissue. MCs interact with multiple components of the TME, affecting TME remodeling and the tumor cell fate. However, controversy persists regarding whether MCs contribute to tumor progression or trigger an anti-tumor immune response. This review focuses on the context of the TME to explore the specific properties and functions of MCs and discusses the crosstalk that occurs between MCs and other components of the TME, which affect tumor angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, invasion and metastasis, and tumor immunity through different mechanisms. We also anticipate the potential role of MCs in cancer immunotherapy, which might expand upon the success achieved with existing cancer therapies.     

Breast Tumor Microenvironment: Emerging target of therapeutic phytochemicals

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive and challenging form of breast cancers. Tumor microenvironment (TME) of TNBC is associated with induction of metastasis, immune system suppression, escaping immune detection and drug resistance. TME is highly complex and heterogeneous, consists of tumor cells, stromal cells and immune cells. The rapid expansion of tumors induce hypoxia, which concerns the reprogramming of TME components. The reciprocal communication of tumor cells and TME cells predisposes cancer cells to metastasis by modulation of developmental pathways, Wnt, notch, hedgehog and their related mechanisms in TME. Dietary phytochemicals are non-toxic and associated with various human health benefits and remarkable spectrum of biological activities. The phytochemicals serve as vital resources for drug discovery and also as a source for breast cancer therapy. The novel properties of dietary phytochemicals propose platform for modulation of tumor signaling, overcoming drug resistance, and targeting TME. Therefore, TME could serve as promising target for the treatment of TNBC. This review presents current status and implications of experimentally evaluated therapeutic phytochemicals as potential targeting agents of TME, potential nanosystems for targeted delivery of phytochemicals and their current challenges and future implications in TNBC treatment. The dietary phytochemicals especially curcumin with significant delivery system could prevent TNBC development as it is considered safe and well tolerated in phase II clinical trials.