Y-chromosome Data and Tribal Affiliations of Allenopithecus and Miopithecus

The phylogeny of Old World monkeys has remained unresolved in part because of a lack of resolution in the Cercopithecinae. Competing morphological hypotheses have had Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) and the talapoins (Miopithecus spp.) as basal branches of either the tribe Cercopithecini or the tribe Papionini. Previous molecular analyses have not adequately addressed the issue. To better understand the evolutionary history of these primates, we sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis 3.1 kb of 2 loci (TSPY and SRY) from the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome. Individuals from the genera Allenopithecus, Miopithecus, Erythrocebus, Chlorocebus, and Cercopithecus were surveyed and their sequences compared with those previously published for the Papionini and Colobinae. The results suggest Allenopithecus and Miopithecus are more closely related to the Cercopithecini than Papionini. Our data also support the hypothesis that within the Cercopithecini, Erythrocebus and Chlorocebus share a close evolutionary relationship, distinct from the other members of the tribe.     

Ovule and seed anatomy ofCistaceae and relatedMalvanae

Ovule and especially seed anatomy of eight species ofCochlospermaceae, Bixaceae, Cistaceae, Monotoideae, Pakaraimaeoideae (two subfamilies ofDipterocarpaceae), andSarcolaenaceae were investigated. All representatives show a bixoid chalazal region in the seed as probable exclusive synapomorphy among angiosperms. The palisade layer of the exotegmen is curved inwards at its proximal end and forms a dome-shaped structure. A plug of hypostase tissue with an annulus/core structure fits into this dome. Moreover, two additional tissue types in the hypostase can be found in some representatives of the group. These and other micromorphological, wood anatomical, and floral morphological characters, indicate that the taxa form a monophyletic group close toMalvales s. str. The form of the starch grains in the endosperm is compared and is described for the first time forPakaraimaea (Dipterocarpaceae) andLeptolaena (Sarcolaenaceae). The position ofDiegodendron close toBixa and the presumably more distant positions ofMuntingia andNeuradaceae are discussed.     

Nystatin and killer toxin sensitivity of free and immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae

The inhibitory effect of nystatin and killer toxin on the growth of free and covalently-immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae cells was studied. The resistance of immobilized cells to both agents was accompanied by increased amounts of phospholipids and sterols. The possible relationship between these changes in the membrane composition and the transduction of a signal across the cytoplasmic membrane is discussed.     

The hernandez and fernandez genes of Drosophila specify eye and antenna

The formation of different structures in Drosophila depends on the combined activities of selector genes and signaling pathways. For instance, the antenna requires the selector gene homothorax, which distinguishes between the leg and the antenna and can specify distal antenna if expressed ectopically. Similarly, the eye is formed by a group of "eye-specifying" genes, among them eyeless, which can direct eye development ectopically. We report here the characterization of the hernandez and fernandez genes, expressed in the antennal and eye primordia of the eye-antenna imaginal disc. The predicted proteins encoded by these two genes have 27% common amino acids and include a Pipsqueak domain. Reduced expression of either hernandez or fernandez mildly affects antenna and eye development, while the inactivation of both genes partially transforms distal antenna into leg. Ectopic expression of either of the two genes results in two different phenotypes: it can form distal antenna, activating genes like homothorax, spineless, and spalt, and it can promote eye development and activates eyeless. Reciprocally, eyeless can induce hernandez and fernandez expression, and homothorax and spineless can activate both hernandez and fernandez when ectopically expressed. The formation of eye by these genes seems to require Notch signaling, since the induction of ectopic eyes and the activation of eyeless by the hernandez gene are suppressed when the Notch function is compromised. Our results show that the hernandez and fernandez genes are required for antennal and eye development and are also able to specify eye or antenna ectopically.     

Amino acids and sugars in nectar,and their putative evolutionary significance

Individual amino acids and sugars from flower nectar of 32 plant species with different pollination systems were quantified and compared. Data show that there is no correlation between sugar and amino acid concentration. Furthermore there is no correlation between composition and concentration of amino acids and evolutionary advancement, nor any direct relation with pollination systems. However, higher sugar concentrations are often linked with more advanced morphological characters. Nectars from pierced or damaged flowers or nectars contaminated with pollen exhibit modifications and increases in amino acid composition. The presence of proline probably indicates such pollen contamination. Most pollinating animals depend on flower nectar in their energetic requirements, yet innumerable alternative amino acid and protein sources exist. Future research has to consider the relationship between nutritional requirements of pollinating animals and dependence on flower nectars.Dedicated to Prof. Dr.L. van der Pijl, Den Haag, in honour of his 80th birthday.     

Cyclooxygenase inhibitory and antioxidant cyanidin glycosides in cherries and berries

Anthocyanins from tart cherries, Prunus cerasus L. (Rosaceae) cv. Balaton and Montmorency; sweet cherries, Prunus avium L. (Rosaceae); bilberries, Vaccinum myrtillus L. (Ericaceae); blackberries, Rubus sp. (Rosaceae); blueberries var. Jersey, Vaccinium corymbosum L. (Ericaceae); cranberries var. Early Black, Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. (Ericaceae); elderberries, Sambucus canadensis (Caprifoliaceae); raspberries, Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae); and strawberries var. Honeoye, Fragaria x ananassa Duch. (Rosaceae), were investigated for cyclooxygenase inhibitory and antioxidant activities. The presence and levels of cyanidin-3-glucosylrutinoside 1 and cyanidin-3-rutinoside 2 were determined in the fruits using HPLC. The antioxidant activity of anthocyanins from cherries was comparable to the commercial antioxidants, tert-butylhydroquinone, butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole, and superior to vitamin E, at a test concentration of 125 microg/ml. Anthocyanins from raspberries and sweet cherries demonstrated 45% and 47% cyclooxygenase-I and cyclooxygenase-II inhibitory activities, respectively, when assayed at 125 microg/ml. The cyclooxygenase inhibitory activities of anthocyanins from these fruits were comparable to those of ibuprofen and naproxen at 10 microM concentrations. Anthocyanins 1 and 2 are present in both cherries and raspberry. The yields of pure anthocyanins 1 and 2 in 100 g Balaton and Montmorency tart cherries, sweet cherries and raspberries were 21, 16.5; 11, 5; 4.95, 21; and 4.65, 13.5 mg, respectively. Fresh blackberries and strawberries contained only anthocyanin 2 in yields of 24 and 22.5 mg/100 g, respectively. Anthocyanins 1 and 2 were not found in bilberries, blueberries, cranberries or elderberries.     

Pollen morphology ofSonchus and related genera,and a general discussion

The pollen morphology of the taxa belonging to the generaAetheorhiza Cass.,Launaea Cass.,Reichardia Roth andSonchus L. in the Iberian Peninsula has been studied with light and electron microscopy. The pollen is 3(-4)-zonocolporate and echinolophate (without polar lacunae, but in general with prelacunae), with equatorial ridges and 15–20 lacunae: 3–4 poral, 6–8 abporal and 6–8 paraporal. Small to medium size, P × E = 19–36 × 23–42 µm; sometimes two different sizes have been found. Exine 3–9 µm thick and ornamentation microreticulate and echinate. The results clearly show the relationships between genera. Moreno-Socías, E., Mejías, J. A., Díez, M. J., 1994: Morfología polínica deLactuceae (Asteraceae) en la Península Ibérica, I.Lactuca y géneros relacionados. — Acta Bot. Malacitana.19: 103–113.     

Molecular identification and differentiation of Brevibacterium species and strains

Amplified ribosomal DNA restriction enzyme analysis (ARDRA), pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and ribotyping were used to differentiate among 24 strains of Brevibacterium linens, Brevibacterium casei and Brevibacterium epidermidis obtained from type culture collections or isolated from various smear ripened cheeses. ARDRA was applied to the 16S rDNA. B. linens was shown to be a quite heterogenic group with 2 to at least 4 copies of rrn operons per strain with aberrant nucleotide sequences. AccI gave genus specific restriction patterns and was used to separate Brevibacterium from Corynebacterium species. The expected species specificity of TaqI applied to B. linens type culture strains, but not to all strains isolated from cheese. By AvaI restriction, B. casei and B. linens were differentiated from B. epidermidis and the orange pigmented Arthrobacter casei, a new species of coryneform bacteria; by XmnI restriction, B. linens and B. epidermidis were differentiated from B. casei. One of 4 B. linens genotypes could not be distinguished from B. casei by this method. Here, the typical orange B. linens pigments were used for classification, which was confirmed by partial sequencing of the 16S rDNA.     

Utilized and potentially utilizable seaweeds on the Namibian coast: biogeography and accessibility

Of the 1500 km coast of Namibia, only 80 km is predominantly rocky, the remaining 1420 km being sandy with only minor rocky outcrops. At present two species are utilized, Gracilaria verrucosa for agar and Laminaria schinzii for human consumption. Other potentially utilizable seaweeds occurring on the coast are Ecklonia maxima for alginates, Suhria vittata for agar, Gigartina radula, G. stiriata and Aeodes orbitosa for carrageenans and Porphyra capensis for human consumption. Laminaria schinzii also can be used for alginate production. Due to the diamond-mining areas around the 80 km rocky area at Luderitz (26° 39 S), only 20 km are accessible; hence, at present the seaweeds are being exploited almost to their full potential. The species currently not being utilized could be used, however, to support the industry that already exists at Luderitz. To increase production, access to the diamond areas would have to be gained or a cultivation program initiated.     

New species and new combinations in Peruvian Orchidaceae

seventeen new species and combinations are proposed in the generaChondrorhyncha, Cischweinfia, Cochlioda, Eloyella, Encyclia, Kefersteinia, Koellensteinia, Macroclinium, Rodriguezia, Solenidiopsis, andStenia. All new species are illustrated. A key is provided for 2-flowered species ofMacroclinium, PeruvianSigmatostalix, and PeruvianStenia. Solenidium (Solenidiopsis) peruvianum Schltr. is lectotypified.     

Development and function of Pisolithus and Scleroderma ectomycorrhizas formed in vivo with Allocasuarina,Casuarina and Eucalyptus

The effect of inoculating seedlings of Eucalyptus grandis, Allocasuarina littoralis and Casuarina equisetifolia with two isolates of Pisolithus and two isolates of Scleroderma from under eucalypts was examined in a glasshouse trial. Ectomycorrhizas formed extensively on Eucalyptus (23–46% fine roots ectomycorrhizal) and Allocasuarina (18–51% fine roots ectomycorrhizal). On Casuarina, the fungi were either unable to colonize the rhizosphere (one isolate of Pisolithus), or sheathed roots, resembling ectomycorrhizas, formed on 1–2% of the fine roots. Colonization of roots by one isolate of Scleroderma resulted in the death of Casuarina seedlings. Inoculation with fungi increased shoot dry weight by up to a factor of 32 (Eucalyptus), 4 (Allocasuarina) and 3 (Casuarina). Ectomycorrhizas formed in associations with Eucalyptus and Allocasuarina had fully differentiated mantles and Hartig nets in which the host and fungal cells were linked by an extensive fibrillar matrix. Sheathed roots in Casuarina lacked a Hartig net, and the epidermis showed a hypersensitive reaction resulting in wall thickening and cell death. The sheaths are described as mantles since the density and arrangement of the hyphae in the sheaths was similar to that in mantles of the eucalypt ectomycorrhizas. The intercellular carbohydrate matrix was not produced in the Casuarina mantle in association with Pisolithus, hence the mantle was not cemented to the root. These structures differ from poorly compatible associations described previously for Pisolithus and Eucalyptus. The anatomical data indicate that ectomycorrhizal assessment based on surface morphological features may be misleading in ecological studies because compatible and incompatible associations may not be distinguishable.     

Phylogeny and biosystematics ofPseudomonotes (Dipterocarpaceae) based on molecular and morphological data

The placement of a recently discovered South American monotypic genus,Pseudomonotes tropenbosii, in subfam.Monotoideae (Dipterocarpaceae) extends the geographical range of the subfamily from Africa to the Neotropics. Although morphological and anatomical evidence suggest similarities betweenPseudomonotes andMonotes, the close alliance of these two genera was questionable due to their disjunct distribution and a lack of phylogenetic analysis. In the present study, we reconstructed the phylogeny ofPseudomonotes and other putatively related taxa usingrbcL sequence data. The analysis ofrbcL sequences of 20 taxa belonging to 15 genera and eight families recovered a single most parsimonious tree. The genusSarcolaena (Sarcolaenaceae) formed a clade sister to the monophyleticDipterocarpaceae clade.Monotes andPseudomonotes formed a strongly supported group, sister to the monophyletic clade withPakaraimaea and the remaining Asiatic dipterocarp species studied. The study strongly supports the placement ofPseudomonotes within subfam.Monotoideae of theDipterocarpaceae.     

When genes meet nomenclature: tortoise phylogeny and the shifting generic concepts of Testudo and Geochelone

We used a five-gene data set (mtDNA: 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cyt-b; nDNA: Cmos, Rag2) comprising approximately two-thirds of all extant testudinid species and, for the first time, including all five Testudo species to investigate the question of whether all western Palaearctic testudinids are monophyletic. Further, we examined whether the recently suggested allocation of the African Geochelone pardalis in the otherwise exclusively South African genus Psammobates and of the Malagasy G. yniphora in the monotypic genus Angonoka is justified in the face of considerable morphological evidence against such placements. Our phylogenetic analyses do not support the paraphyly and generic break-up of Testudo, as suggested by previous papers using a smaller taxon sampling and mtDNA data only. We propose a continued usage of the generic name Testudo for all five western Palaearctic tortoise species. Within Testudo, two monophyletic subclades are present, one containing T. hermanni+T. horsfieldii, and the other comprising (T. kleinmanni+T. marginata)+T. graeca. Nomenclaturally, we demonstrate that Eurotestudo Lapparent de Broin et al., 2006, which was recently erected with the type species T. hermanni, is an objective junior synonym of Chersine Merrem, 1820 and Medaestia Wussow, 1916. Recognition of a monotypic genus Angonoka for G. yniphora is unwarranted according to both our re-analysis of sequence data and morphological data. Acknowledging the strong morphological similarity between G. yniphora and G. radiata, we suggest placing both species into the genus Astrochelys. Although sequence data for only one of the three Psammobates species was available for analysis, there is currently no cause to challenge the monophyly of this genus as established on the basis of morphological evidence. Thus, we hypothesize that G. pardalis is sister to a monophyletic Psammobates. In light of the clear morphological gap between G. pardalis and Psammobates species, the recognition of a distinct genus Stigmochelys for the former seems justified.     

Theoretical Study of Antagonists and Inhibitors of Mammalian Adenosine Deaminase: I. Adenosine and Its Aza- and Deazaanalogues

Aza- and deazaanalogues of adenosine, including their 1-protonated forms (except for that of 1-deazaadenosine), were studied by computer computation to find a relationship between their molecular structures and substrate properties for the mammalian adenosine deaminase. The atomic charge distribution and maps of the electrostatic potential around their van der Waals molecular surface were calculated for these compounds using the ab initio STO-3G method. The conformational studies are carried out by the MM⁺ method of molecular mechanics. The mechanism that determines the substrate selectivity of mammalian adenosine deaminase is discussed.     

Origin and development of Tool-making behavior in Africa and Asia

Around two-and-a-half million years ago, some hominid populations in Africa began to modify stones and bones in a manner that can be recognized by prehistorians as artifacts, and, by definition, produced the earliest identifiable archaeological record. It is likely that earlier hominid groups also may have had relatively rich tool-using behavioral repertoires similar to that seen in modern chimpanzees (McGrew, 1992), such tools may have been made of perishable materials or minimally modified and thus difficult to identify. This review will focus on the earliest archaeological traces and the spread of hominids out of Africa and into Eurasia.     

Edaphic limitations to growth and photosynthesis in Sierran and Great Basin vegetation

Summary Soils derived from hydrothermally altered andesite support unique communities of Sierran conifers (Pinus ponderosa Laws. and P. jeffreyi Grev. and Balf.) amongst sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) vegetation in the western Great Basin. Plants grown in soil derived from hydrothermally altered bedrock had lower growth rates, total biomass, and net photosynthetic rates than plants grown in soil derived from unaltered andesite of the same formation. Total dry mass was 10 to 28% lower for conifers grown in altered soil whereas dry mass of Artemisia tridentata and Bromus tectorum L. was reduced by over 90%. Results from a nutrient amendment experiment indicated that low phosphorus was the dominant limitation in altered soil, and phosphorus-deficiency affected growth primarily by limiting leaf area development rather than direct inhibition of photosynthesis. The proportionately greater reduction of biomass for Artemisia and Bromus grown in altered soil supports our hypothesis that Great Basin vegetation is excluded from altered soil by intolerance to nutrient deficiency. The Sierran conifers growing on this rock type are therefore free of competition for water with Great Basin vegetation and are able to persist in an exceptionally dry climate.     

Planting densities and bird and rodent absence affect size distributions of four dicots in synthetic tallgrass communities

Variability in the size distributions of populations is usually studied in monocultures or in mixed plantings of two species. Variability of size distributions of populations in more complex communities has been neglected. The effects of seeding density (35 or 350 seeds/species/m²) and presence of small vertebrates on the variability of size distributions were studied for a total of 1,920 individuals of 4 species in replicated synthetic communities of 18 species in northern Illinois. End-of season height and above-ground biomass were measured for prairie perennials Dalea purpurea (purple prairie clover), Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower), Desmanthus illinoensis (Illinois bundleflower) and Heliopsis helianthoides (early sunflower). Variability in biomass distribution of the four target species was twice as great at low than at high densities when small vertebrates were excluded. Our results suggest that inter- and intraspecific competition may affect all individuals more under high-density conditions, thereby reducing the variability in their biomass distributions within this community. This result, a consequence of plant-plant interaction, is obscured when small birds or mammals are present, presumably because either or both add variance that overwhelms the pattern.     

Nectary structure and nectar characteristics in someBignoniaceae

The nectary structure and chemical nectar composition of 15 species belonging to 12 genera ofBignoniaceae are analyzed. All taxa bear a conspicuous nuptial nectary surrounding the ovary base. The secretory tissue is mostly supplied by phloem branches. The stomata are located in the middle and upper part of the nectary epidermis with an homogeneous distribution. The nuptial nectary is proportionally large in relation to the ovary (15–30%), disregarding the nectary volume. Most species have extranuptial nectaries in both inner and outer surfaces of the calyx. Both kinds of nectaries lack a vascular tissue that straightly supplies them. Nuptial nectar concentration (wt/wt) ranges from 19 to 68%. Sugars and amino acids are found in all species. Half of the species have hexose predominant nectars, the remaining sucrose predominant. Phenols are detected in only three species, whereas reducing acids exclusively inTecoma stans. Alkaloids and lipids were never detected. Extranuptial nectar chemical composition is analyzed in two species:Dolichandra cynanchoides andPodranea ricasoliana. Bees constitute the main flower visitors of the species studied whereas hummingbirds were seen visiting three species. A correlation analysis is performed with the data obtained. There are a few significant correlations which indicate a parallel increase of three parameters: the longer the flower length, the more voluminous the nectary and the higher stomata number, independently of the floral biotype. Phenograms are obtained using 24 floral characters including nectary and nectar data. The clusters obtained do not reflect taxonomic relationships but are useful in the understanding of animal-plant interactions when the flower biotype is considered.This paper is based on a chapter of a doctoral thesis presented at the University of Córdoba (Argentina).     

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen ratio on the growth and sporulation of several biocontrol fungi

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio on six biocontrol fungal strains are reported in this paper. All fungal strains had extensive growth on the media supplemented with 6–12 g l⁻¹ carbon and C:N ratios from 10:1 to 80:1, and differed in nutrient requirements for sporulation. Except for the two strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus, all selected fungi attained the highest spore yields at a C:N ratio of 160:1 when the carbon concentration was 12 g l⁻¹ for Metarhizium anisopliae SQZ-1-21, 6 g l⁻¹ for M. anisopliae RS-4-1 and Trichoderma viride TV-1, and 8 g l⁻¹ for Lecanicillium lecanii CA-1-G. The optimal conditions for P. lilacinus sporulation were 8 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 10:1 for M-14 and 12 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 20:1 for IPC-P, respectively. The results indicated that the influence of carbon concentration and C:N ratio on fungal growth and sporulation is strain dependent; therefore, consideration for the complexity of nutrient requirements is essential for improving yields of fungal biocontrol agents.