拉沙山黑白仰鼻猴食物中单宁含量的变化

叶食性灵长类食物选择受食物营养及单宁等次生代谢产物影响,为了探讨单宁对黑白仰鼻猴食物选择的影响,通过磷钼酸-钨酸钠 (F-D) 比色法测定了拉沙山黑白仰鼻猴群 (Rhinopithecus bieti) 2010年4月 - 2012年3月间的食用植物 (192种) 和非食用植物 (188种) 单宁含量。结果表明,黑白仰鼻群全年食用植物中单宁含量低于非食用植物;春季食用植物中单宁含量高于其他季节,而其他季节无差异;不同取食部位单宁由高到低依次为芽、花、叶、果和地衣;不同季节,不同取食部位单宁有差异,春季芽的单宁含量最高,夏秋季果实单宁含量最高,冬季叶单宁含量最高;不同月份,食物单宁也不同,3月食用植物中单宁最高 (8.36% ± 6.22%),2月最低 (1.28% ± 1.19%)。因此,黑白仰鼻猴根据环境食物种类和供给时空特征,可能采取了从高蛋白纤维比/高单宁到低蛋白纤维比/低单宁连续谱觅食策略。     

秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成及季节性变化

2013年3月至2014年2月,在秦岭南坡观音山自然保护区大坪峪颜家沟内选取一群半野生川金丝猴的成年个体作为研究对象,采用瞬时扫描取样法收集其觅食的食物类型数据,目的是为该猴群建立食谱,并通过对比不同季节内觅取的食物组成差异探讨秦岭南坡川金丝猴如何应对喜食食物的季节性缺乏。结果表明：秦岭南坡川金丝猴共采食53种植物（包括34种乔木、13种灌木、6种藤本植物）和4种大型真菌,分别占取食植物组成的64.3%、25.3%、8.0%和2.2%,春、夏、秋、冬季节取食种类和多样性指数分别为20种(3.93)、19种(3.73)、21种(3.87)和25种(4.12)。在秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成中,地衣占总觅食记录的22%;树叶占20%,其中嫩叶9%和成熟叶11%;种子、树皮、芽苞、果实和叶柄分别占16%、15%、11%、 9%和7%。该猴群觅取的植物部位具有明显的季节性差异。春季,对树皮和芽苞的觅食量较高,分别为28%和25%;夏季,增加了对成熟叶的采食量(29%),而减少了芽苞的觅取量(5%);秋季,以取食种子和果实为主,分别占总觅食的48% 和16%;冬季,地衣的采食量达到最大值（41%）。觅食的食物组成与食物的可获得性呈正相关性(R = 0.984, P < 0.01),这与大多数叶猴的适应策略类似,在喜食食物短缺的冬季,它们选择更多的地衣和树皮为食,同时它们采食的种类和食物多样性也有相应增加。     

黄腹角雉的食性研究

报逍了黄腹角雉(Tragopan caboti)的全年食谱以及繁殖期嗉囊内容物分析。以地面觅食为主,取食植物叶、芽、果实和种子,偶食小型动物。繁殖期食物的干重百分比是:植物性食物占97.89％,其中果实、种子及嫩叶含量分别为48.20％,37.13％和12.56％;动物性食物占2.11％,主要为鳞翅目幼虫。     

广西扶绥黑叶猴主要食物种类能量含量的初步研究

能量对灵长类食物选择的影响是营养生态学中重要的组成部分。为了研究黑叶猴食物能量及其对食物选择的影响,采用焦点动物取样法和连续记录法在广西扶绥观察记录野生黑叶猴的觅食行为;每月观察结束后采集被取食的植物部位样本,利用全自动氧弹热量计测定其能量。结果表明,黑叶猴食物中嫩叶最高（58.5%）,其次为果实（12.4%）,其他种类依次为成熟叶（12.1%）、种子（10.6%）、花（4.3%）和树皮（2.4%）。在不同的生活型食物中,乔木占48.5%,灌木占34.6%,藤本和草本分别占19.4%和17.2%。各种食物平均能量为17.09 kJ/g,月平均能量在16.52 -17.61 kJ/g之间变化。种子的能量最高,达19.52 kJ/g,最低为成熟叶,仅为16.84 kJ/g。不同生活型植物中,灌木能量最高,达17.52 kJ/g,草本植物最低,仅为15.73 kJ/g。不同植物种类之间能量有显著的差异（P < 0.001）。取食量最多的15种和最少的15种植物之间平均能量有显著差异（P < 0.001）,但在月份间、雨季和旱季间则无显著差异（P > 0.05）。取食不同种类的时间与其平均能量之间无显著相关关系（P = 0.40）,食物能量含量并非影响黑叶猴食物选择的主要原因,其觅食策略需要进一步的研究。     

广西扶绥黑叶猴的主要食源植物及其粗蛋白含量

食物的营养物质是影响动物食物选择的生态因子。研究动物食物的营养组成及其对野生动物取食的影响对野生动物的保护具有重要的参考意义。为了研究喀斯特环境中食物粗蛋白对黑叶猴食物选择的影响,2006年1月-12月在广西扶绥自然保护区, 采用焦点动物取样法和连续记录法研究了片断化栖息地中黑叶猴的觅食行为,同时采集黑叶猴取食部位样本共40种190份,用凯氏定氮法测量其粗蛋白含量。结果表明,黑叶猴取食的食物包括嫩叶、成熟叶、花、果和种子等部位;食源植物的生活型包括了乔木、灌木、藤本和草本。食物的平均粗蛋白含量为12.7%,有明显的季节性变化。4月份样品的月平均粗蛋白含量全年最高,高达19.1%,而最低在6月份,仅为5.4%。食物的粗蛋白含量在前半年和后半年之间没有显著的差异（z= -1.28,p= 0.20）,在雨季和旱季之间亦无差异（z= -1.22,p= 0.22）;不同食源植物部位的平均粗蛋白含量不同,嫩叶的年平均粗蛋白含量最高,为13.7%,其次是成熟叶和花,分别是13.0%和12.1%,果实最低,仅为9.6%;不同生活型的食源植物粗蛋白含量不同,藤本的粗蛋白含量最高,为 14.1%,草本的最低,仅为10.1%,乔木和灌木分别是11.3%。不同食源植物的取食时间与其粗蛋白含量没有显著的相关关系（p>0.05）,粗蛋白含量不是影响黑叶猴取食的主要因素。     

云南龙马山滇金丝猴(Rhinopithecus bieti)冬季食性分析

2006年11月-2007年12月,对云南云龙县龙马山滇金丝猴(Rhinopithecus bieti)冬季食性进行了研究.采用粪便显微组织学分析技术分析龙马山滇金丝猴冬季采食植物的种类组成和比例,并测定了该猴群主要取食的15种植物(包括两种松萝科植物)(取食食物百分比>1%)和次要取食的10种植物(取食食物百分比<1%)的化学成分.研究结果表明,龙马山滇金丝猴冬季取食的植物共计26科45种,其中云龙箭竹、长松萝、花松萝、实竹、空心箭竹分别占19.78%、10.28%、8.37%、4.93%、4.46%,是滇金丝猴冬季主要取食的植物种类,占取食植物的47.99%.木本植物和草本植物的叶是滇金丝猴的主要食物,在冬季食物中所占百分比最高,达75%.冬季滇金丝猴比较喜欢采食P/F值较高、单宁含量较低的食物,其主要食物比次要食物含有较高的P/F值和较低的单宁(P<0.05).     

紫茎泽兰生长发育过程中糖、激素、单宁、黄酮的变化

采用高效液相和分光光度法对紫茎泽兰不同发育阶段（种子,芽,幼苗和成株）糖、激素、单宁及总黄酮含量差异进行了研究。结果表明：不同糖类的变化。紫茎泽兰的葡萄糖含量以芽最高,为6.93%;而种子（0.16%）、幼苗（1.27%）、成株(1.07%)均明显低于芽阶段;同样,紫茎泽兰中蔗糖含量芽较高,为2.68%,而种子（0.32%）、幼苗（0.52%）、成株(0.09%)均明显低于芽阶段。果糖含量的变化,最大值也是在芽阶段（3.28%）,其次为种子阶段（2.56%）,而种子和成株阶段均很低（0.14%和0.55%）。测定中,海藻糖、棉子糖、甘露糖的含量差别很大,仅种子阶段测定出3种糖的含量,结果表明差别不大,依次为0.04%、0.04%、0.03%。激素类的变化。在不同发育阶段,紫茎泽兰芽阶段吲哚乙酸（IAA）含量较高,达到14.20μg·g^-1 Dw ,比种子阶段高1.25μg·g^-1 Dw,是幼苗的1.63倍,成株阶段的5.55倍。紫茎泽兰赤霉素（GA）含量在不同发育阶段存在着明显的差异,而且种子的GA含量（901.11μg·g^-1 Dw）明显高于芽、幼苗和成株阶段,而以芽和幼苗阶段含量最低,分别为97.35和84.29μg·g^-1 Dw,成株阶段略高于芽和幼苗阶段,为280.50μg·g^-1 Dw。单宁类的变化：紫茎泽兰单宁变化差异明显,紫茎泽兰种子中单宁含量为1.98%,明显高于芽、幼苗和成株阶段（<0.30%）;总黄酮类的变化：紫茎泽兰总黄酮含量在发育过程中呈不断上升趋势。紫茎泽兰种子中总黄酮含量很微弱,为0.04%,而芽、幼苗和成株阶段的紫茎泽兰总黄酮含量均明显高于种子阶段,并且这3个阶段之间含量差别不大,分别为（0.60%、0.64%、0.62%）。这些结果说明,糖、激素、单宁及总黄酮含量与植物生长发育的基本规律和代谢过程的调控密切相关。     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴的食性

2008 年6 月至2009 年5 月,采用扫描瞬时取样法对云南白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴群的食性进行了研究。研究表明,该滇金丝猴群的食物主要由42 个科105 种植物组成。滇金丝猴全年的食物构成如下:松萝50.6% ,成熟叶16.3% ,果实/种子10.5% , 嫩叶8.4% ,竹笋7.9% , 芽3.0% , 花1.9% ,树皮/ 叶柄/茎0.8% ,真菌类0.5% 。研究还表明,滇金丝猴的食谱具有一定的季节性:即夏季取食的植物种类最多,冬季取食的植物种类最少,嫩叶是滇金丝猴春季的主要食物,而果实/ 种子在响古箐的滇金丝猴秋季食物中占有重要的比重。此外,发现竹笋是滇金丝猴夏季的主要食物资源。研究还发现,除松萝以外,对其食物贡献率最大的10科植物的比重达到39.6%,而蔷薇科的取食则高达17.57% ,表明响古箐滇金丝猴对不同种类的食物具有明显的选择性。以上结果表明,响古箐滇金丝猴的取食行为受食物资源季节性变化的影响。     

猕猴觅食策略的地域性差异

本文通过1年连续野外观察（2015年12月至2016月11月）,对比研究了广东省内伶仃—福田国家级自然保护区野生群和台山上川岛猕猴省级自然保护区内半野生投食群的猕猴觅食策略异同,分析了食物数量和食物营养对猕猴觅食行为的影响,探讨了猕猴对生境变化的应对策略及其适应机制。研究结果表明,野生群和半野生群猕猴均偏好取食低灰分果实。另外,比起取食较少的果实,半野生群猕猴主要取食的果实具有低含水量和低蛋白等特点。全年来看,野生群猕猴偏好取食分布数量多的果实;半野生群猕猴食果频率月间波动受环境果实量影响,符合能量最大化理论。野生群和半野生群猕猴采食乔木树叶的行为均不受乔木数量的影响;而且两者采食所有生活型植被的叶的行为不受叶营养的影响。本研究表明猕猴会根据环境的食物资源数量和质量调整其觅食策略,具有对不同生活环境灵活适应的能力。     

青木川自然保护区川金丝猴食性的季节性变化

2005 ～2008 年于陕西省青木川自然保护区使用瞬时扫描法观察了川金丝猴的食性。结果表明,川金丝猴冬季和夏季共取食42 种植物,可鉴定植物归属23 科34 属。川金丝猴食物类型包括果实、花、树叶、树皮、树芽。夏季取食21 种植物的果实或树叶;冬季取食25 种植物。树叶是其冬季主要食物,取食频次占总取食频次的73.0% ;夏季取食果实的频次占总取食频次的72.2% ,灯台树果实是其主要食物。啃食树皮行为主要发生在落叶阔叶林、针叶林与落叶阔叶混交林;在常绿和落叶阔叶混交林中,树皮啃食强度则相对较小。与其它地区金丝猴的食性比较,该地区川金丝猴食物谱较宽。蔷薇科和壳斗科植物在川金丝猴食物组成中最多,杨柳科、桦木科、山茱萸科、槭树科和忍冬科植物也取食较多。     

Food resources of the wild Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) in high-altitude fir forest, Ghomaran Rif, Morocco

A small geographically isolated population of the Barbary macaque inhabits a high-altitude fir forest habitat ( Abies pinsapo ) in the Ghomaran region of the Rif mountains of northern Morocco. The climate of this region is Mediterranean, but the altitude (1600–2100 m) causes winters to be cold (as low as -8.0 C) with snow occurring from November to May (snowfall as deep as 1.5 m). The primary winter feeding adaptation is the ability to ingest high quantities of fir foliage; in spring, the macaques took a high diversity of leafy food items from all vegetation layers; in summer, the macaques foraged terrestrially for a high diversity of food items including seeds, small fruits, bulbous geophytes, and animal foods (including tadpoles from small streams); in autumn, the macaques returned to arboreal foraging, primarily feeding on oak acorns ( Quercus ilex ), fir seeds and yew fruit ( Taxus baccata ). The macaques were capable of ingesting 100 of 195 (51%) of all identified plant species in the region, although during the four-month winter, the macaques only averaged 12.5 common food items. A comparison of the study area with the prime habitat of the Barbary macaque-the high-altitude cedar forests of the Moroccan Moyen Atlas-indicates that climate and vegetation physiognomy are highly similar in both regions. Correspondingly, there is a high degree of similarity in macaque diet in both regions in terms of feeding behaviour by season, food diversity and specific feeding techniques. In the Ghomara, the winter feeding adaptation of fir foliage eating parallels that of the Barbary macaque in cedar forest (winter foraging for cedar foliage). This enables the Barbary macaque to exploit the Ghomaran fir forest habitat during the cold, snowy winters much the same as it does cedar forest habitat throughout a major portion of its geographical range.     

The challenge of interpreting primate diets: mangabey foraging on Blighia unijugata fruit in relation to changing nutrient content

Primates often make foraging selections that are not apparent. For example, they may eagerly consume a particular plant part and species in some instances, but reject it at other times. Blighia unijugata (Baker) fruit is one of the most frequently eaten foods of mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena) in Lwamunda Forest Reserve, Uganda; however, its use varies strikingly depending on the fruit's developmental stage. We conducted feeding observations to investigate the nutritional criteria that mangabeys may have used for the consumption of specific fruit parts by conducting analysis of fruit parts eaten and rejected at different developmental stages. When seeds had low condensed tannins, mangabeys ate them, but seeds were rejected when tannin levels increased. In the first five stages of fruit development, tannin levels in arils declined and the frequency of consumption of the aril increased. Although fat content in seeds increased with maturity, it did not appear to influence seed consumption, but fat content was related to frequency of consumption of the aril. Considering that primates are often making food selections among many species/part combinations, our results illustrate the value of using nutritional analyses to understand foraging decisions. Furthermore, they demonstrate how very specific trade‐offs between consumption of critical nutrients and antifeedants can drive which foods and parts are eaten.     

The foraging behavior of Japanese macaques Macaca fuscata in a forested enclosure:Effects of nutrient composition,energy and its seasonal variation on the consumption of natural plant foods

In the wild, primate foraging behaviors are related to the diversity and nutritional properties of food, which are affected by seasonal variation. The goal of environmental enrichment is to stimulate captive animals to exhibit similar foraging behavior of their wild counterparts, e.g. To extend foraging time. We conducted a 12-month study on the foraging behavior of Japanese macaques in a semi-naturally forested enclosure to understand how they use both provisioned foods and naturally available plant foods and what are the nutritional criteria of their consumption of natural plants. We recorded time spent feeding on provisioned and natural plant foods and collected the plant parts ingested of their major plant food species monthly, when available.We conducted nutritional analysis (crude protein, crude lipid, neutral detergent fiber-'NDF', ash) and calculated total non-slructural carbohydrate - 'TNC' and total energy of those food items. Monkeys spent 47% of their feeding time foraging on natural plant species. The consumption of plant parts varied significantly across seasons. We found that leaf items were consumed in months when crude protein, crude protein-to-NDF ratio, TNC and total energy were significantly higher and NDF was significantly lower, fruit/nut items in months when crude protein and TNC were significantly higher and crude lipid content was significantly lower, and bark items in months when TNC and total energy were higher and crude lipid content was lower. This preliminary investigation showed that the forested enclosure allowed troop members to more fully express their species typical flexible behavior by challenging them to adjust their foraging behavior to seasonal changes of plant item diversity and nutritional content, also providing the possibility for individuals to nutritionally enhance their diet.     

Diet and feeding behavior of Rhinopithecus brelichi at Yangaoping, Guizhou

Expectations of increases in human population growth and accelerated habitat loss, along with the realization that efforts to provide protection for ecosystems that sustain primates have met with limited success, make it critical that conservation plans are grounded firmly in scientific observation. Studies of the diet breadth and feeding behavior of endangered species, therefore, are critical for understanding ecological adaptations and developing a conservation strategy. The diet and feeding ecology of gray snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi) were studied in the Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou, China. The monkeys were found to consume 107 different species of trees, shrubs, and ground plants from 58 genera and 28 families. Food items included young leaves, mature leaves, flowers, fruits/seeds, buds, and insects. Among these food items, there were at least 13 evergreen species of tree and liana, 3 species of grasses, and at least 2 kinds of invertebrates collected from decayed wood. Diet varied markedly throughout different seasons. Overall, diet composition (based on feeding records) was 15.3% buds, 25.5% young leaves, 21.8% mature leaves, 9.4% flowers, 21.6% fruits/seeds, and 6.3% other items. The monkeys feed mainly on young leaves and flowers in spring, unripe fruits/seeds and young leaves in summer, ripe fruits/seeds in autumn, and mature leaves and buds in winter. We propose that when inhabiting forests of lower elevation and greater vegetation complexity, R. brelichi is characterized by expanded diet breadth and includes a greater diversity of food types and plant species in its diet. One food type that appears critical to the diet of this species, especially during the winter, are the buds of Magnolia sprengeri. To protect this resource we advocate working with local communities to limit the collection of M. sprengeri, which is used in traditional Chinese medicine and has high economic value for people in the reserve.     

Food preferences of wild mountain gorillas

Determining the nutritional and phenolic basis of food preference is important for understanding the nutritional requirements of animals. Preference is a measure of which foods would be consumed by an animal if there was no variation in availability among food items. From September 2004 to August 2005, we measured the food preferences of four wild mountain gorilla groups that consume foliage and fruit in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, to determine what nutrients and phenols are preferred and/or avoided. To do so, we asked the following questions: (1) Which plant species do the gorillas prefer? (2) Considering the different plant parts consumed of these preferred species, what nutrients and/or phenols characterize them? (3) Do the nutritional and phenolic characteristics of preferred foods differ among gorilla groups? We found that although some species were preferred and others were not, of those species found in common among the different group home ranges, the same ones were generally preferred by all groups. Second, all groups preferred leaves with relatively high protein content and relatively low fiber content. Third, three out of four groups preferred leaves with relatively high sugar amounts. Fourth, all groups preferred pith with relatively high sugar content. Finally, of the two groups tested, we found that the preferred fruits of one group had relatively high condensed tannin and fiber/sugar contents, whereas the other group's preferred fruits were not characterized by any particular nutrient/phenol. Overall, there were no differences among gorilla groups in nutritional and phenolic preferences. Our results indicate that protein and sugar are important in the diets of gorillas, and that the gorillas fulfil these nutritional requirements through a combination of different plant parts, shedding new light on how gorillas balance their diets in a variable environment. Am. J. Primatol. 70:927–938, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Food selection in relation to nutritional chemistry of Cao Vit gibbons in Jingxi,China

The Cao Vit gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) has only one population with about 110 individuals living in a degraded karst forest along the China–Vietnam border. Investigation of food choice in relation to chemical nutrition will offer important insights into its conservation. We studied the food choice of two groups of Cao Vit gibbons using instantaneous scan sampling in Bangliang National Nature Reserve, Guangxi, China, over 4 years, and analyzed the chemical components (total nitrogen, TN; water-soluble sugar, WSS; crude fat, CF; neutral detergent fiber, NDF; acid detergent fiber, ADF; acid detergent lignin, ADL; condensed tannin, CT; and ash) of 48 food plant parts and 22 non-food plant parts. Fruits and figs that are rich in sugar are important food resources for gibbons. For other food types, flowers are a good source of total nitrogen and carbohydrates, and leaves and buds provide sources of protein and minerals. Cao Vit gibbons selected fruits that contain less total nitrogen, less acid detergent fiber and more water-soluble sugar than non-food fruits. Several food species that were heavily consumed by Cao Vit gibbons are suggested as potential tree species for ongoing habitat restoration.     

Effects of fat and protein levels on foraging preferences of tannin in scatter-hoarding rodents

Both as consumers and dispersers of seeds, scatter-hoarding rodents often play an important role in the reproductive ecology of many plant species. However, the seeds of many plant species contain tannins, which are a diverse group of water-soluble phenolic compounds that have a high affinity for proteins. The amount of tannins in seeds is expected to affect rodent foraging preferences because of their major impact on rodent physiology and survival. However, variable results have been obtained in studies that evaluated the effects of tannin on rodent foraging behavior. Hence, in this study, we aimed to explain these inconsistent results and proposed that a combination of seed traits might be important in rodent foraging behavior, because it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of individual traits on rodent foraging behavior and the interactions among them. By using a novel artificial seed system, we manipulated seed tannin and fat/protein levels to examine directly the univariate effects of each component on the seed preferences of free-ranging forest rats (Apodemus latronum and Apodemus chevrieri) during the behavioral process of scatter hoarding. Our results showed that both tannin and fat/protein had significant effects on rodent foraging behavior. Although only a few interactive effects of tannin and fat/protein were recorded, higher concentrations of both fat and protein could attenuate the exclusion of seeds with higher tannin concentrations by rodents, thus influencing seed fate. Furthermore, aside from the concentrations of tannin, fat, and protein, numerous other traits of plant seeds may also influence rodent foraging behavior. We suggest that by clarifying rodent foraging preferences, a better understanding of the evolution of plant seed traits may be obtained because of their strong potential for selective pressure.     

Food Habits of Formosan Rock Macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Jentse,Northeastern Taiwan,Assessed by Fecal Analysis and Behavioral Observation

We studied the food habits of the Formosan rock macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Jentse via fecal analysis and direct field observation from October 1991 to September 1992, and recorded macaques eating 51 plant species and insects of 5 orders. Macaques in Jentse spent more time feeding on fruits than on other plant parts or insects. However, there was seasonal variation in their food habits, i.e., they spent a higher proportion of time feeding on fruits and insects in summer, and on leaves and stems in winter. The major plant species consumed and the patterns of seasonal variation in the macaque diets identified by fecal analysis and field observation are similar. However, there are discrepancies between results from the two methods in some of the finer details of estimated dietary composition.