不同能量的培养条件对人神经母细胞瘤株SH-SY5Y细胞生长的影响

目的建立热量限制的体外模型,观察不同能量培养条件下对人神经母细胞瘤细胞株SH-SY5Y细胞生长代谢的影响。方法将人神经母细胞瘤细胞株SH-SY5Y细胞分别采用含有低浓度（2 g/L）、正常浓度（3.15g/L）或高浓度（4.5 g/L）葡萄糖的培养基进行常规传代培养,利用MTT代谢率、细胞生长曲线及LDH漏出率等指标观察各组细胞生长情况。结果与正常葡萄糖浓度培养条件下培养的对照组相比,高糖组细胞突起缩短,细胞胞体皱缩,MTT代谢率稍低（0.573±0.001）,LDH漏出率高,细胞生长状态差;与对照组相比,低糖组细胞突起伸展,MTT代谢率较低（0.428±0.003）,LDH漏出率低,细胞生长速度缓慢,但是形态良好。结论高糖培养对细胞有损伤作用,细胞代谢加速,更容易衰老死亡;而低糖培养起到保护作用,在热量限制允许范围内降低培养液的含糖量,不但不会对细胞造成损伤,反而对细胞的代谢及生长起到保护作用,延长细胞的总体寿命。     

热量限制对延缓衰老的作用

热量限制（caloric restriction,CR）在很多物种中能够改善健康和延缓衰老,近年来的许多研究发现,热量限制可以减少多种与年龄相关性疾病的发生,但至今热量限制延缓衰老的机制尚未十分清楚.最近有研究表明,热量限制延缓衰老的机制可能与营养调控、生殖滞育等过程有密切的关系,SIRT1、PGC-1α、AMPK、TOR等信号因子也因其在热量限制和营养调控延缓衰老的机制研究中的重要作用而受到极大的关注.     

衰老细胞中热休克转录因子1的异常调节和定位

为评估人热休克转录因子1（HSF1）在衰老细胞中呈现年龄依赖功能失调机制, 通过凝胶电泳迁移率改变实验(EMSA)和RNA酶保护实验等了解低总体倍增水平（PDLs）的年轻和高PDLs的衰老IMR90双倍体人肺纤维母细胞的HSF1 DNA 结合活性、HSF1蛋白质及其编码转录子mRNA水平和亚细胞分布.使用H2O2诱导年轻IMR90细胞成为“应激诱导早熟性老化(SIPS)” 细胞,并与复制性衰老细胞比较HSF1 DNA 结合活性、HSF1亚细胞分布和细胞内过氧化物含量.在不同年龄的IMR90细胞中,无论体内或体外,HSF1激活能力与细胞年龄呈反相关,但细胞内HSF1蛋白质与其mRNA水平并无改变.HSF1的亚细胞定位分析显示,HSF1主要存在于年轻细胞胞质中,热刺激促使三体形成和核转移;而在衰老细胞中,37℃时HSF1大部分存在于细胞核内,热刺激后形成三体,与DNA结合能力明显比年轻细胞弱;用H2O2诱导的应激成熟前老化细胞内,HSF1功能和亚细胞分布都与复制性衰老细胞相似.结果显示,细胞年龄与HSF1的激活和定位相关,而与HSF1含量无关,这些变化可能是通过氧化修饰所致.     

非人类灵长类恒河猴衰老与热量限制抗衰老研究进展

非人类灵长类恒河猴是研究人类衰老和热量限制抗衰老的理想模型。与人类衰老一样,恒河猴由于增龄性神经内分泌、免疫、神经系统、心血管系统等衰老,出现相应的老年病。热量限制能有效地延缓恒河猴原发性衰老和继发性衰老。其机制可能是调节代谢相关的信号通路,抑制氧化应激-炎性衰老-DNA损伤;同时激活DNA损伤修复。然而,不同的实验设计、饲养环境、饮食组成和遗传背景等可能对热量限制抗长生命周期恒河猴原发性衰老和继发性衰老作用存在不同的影响。优化实验设计,控制这些变量,缩短实验周期将更有利于明确CR抗衰老的作用及其机制。     

热量限制及其模拟物的延衰作用

热量限制是一种有效的延缓衰老的方法,它不仅能延长实验动物的寿命,还能推迟和减少多种老龄相关疾病的发生,但长期严格的热量限制对人类较难实施,因此类似的人体试验相对较少。基于对热量限制抗衰老作用机制的研究促使了热量限制模拟物的出现,使得热量限制这种延衰策略在人类施行成为可能。本文介绍了热量限制延衰机制的最新研究进展,并根据热量限制模拟物作用机制的不同,分别对下游型热量限制模拟物AMPK激活剂、m TOR抑制剂和Sirtuins激活剂,及上游型热量限制模拟物2-脱氧葡萄糖、D-葡糖胺和壳聚糖进行综述。     

一种高效经济的小鼠胰岛细胞分离纯化新技术

目的:建立一种经济高效的小鼠胰岛细胞分离纯化方法,为进行NOD小鼠的胰岛移植提供实验条件.方法:将5-7周龄、体重20～25 g的雄,陛昆明小鼠的胆总管结扎,并逆行Hank's液和胶原酶P灌注和分离消化,依次加入84%、67%、50%浓度的Histopaque介质后进行不连续密度梯度离心纯化胰岛细胞.双硫腙(dithizon,DTZ)和台盼兰染色分别鉴定胰岛细胞.用含5.6mmol/L葡萄糖DMEM培养液体外培养胰岛细胞,培养后的第3、5、7、9、11天取细胞上清检测胰岛素水平,并用16.7mmol/L的高浓度葡萄糖进行刺激,检测胰岛素水平确定胰岛细胞功能.结果:每个胰腺的胰岛细胞收获量在1200±124个,且纯度和活性均大于90%;体外培养9天内胰岛细胞基础胰岛素分泌水平无显著差异,至第11天时则明显减少(P＜0.05);应用16.7mmol/L葡萄糖刺激后,第5、7、9、11天的胰岛素分泌水平较第3天的明显减少(P＜0.05),然而在第7天、9天、11天时的胰岛素水平较第5天时显著降低.结论:胆总管逆行注射Hank's液和胶原酶P消化消化和不连续密度梯度Histopaque纯化的方法可以获得大量状态良好的胰岛,且胰岛细胞数量多,分泌状态良好.本分离方法是一种经济高效的胰岛细胞分离方法,同时离体后于5.6mmol/L葡萄糖DMEM培养第3天胰岛细胞胰岛素储备功能最佳,为移植研究的最佳状态.     

热量限制延缓衰老的自噬与表观遗传修饰交互关系

衰老是多因素作用下的组织、器官功能性衰退进程。自噬是真核细胞溶酶体介导而降解细胞质成分的过程,参与衰老及相关的各种生理病理过程。环境因素所致衰老则大多数伴随着表观遗传修饰的改变。热量限制被认为是调节衰老、延长寿命的干预措施。本综述围绕自噬与表观遗传修饰,阐述了热量限制引发自噬、通过表观遗传修饰延缓衰老的分子机制,以及两者在热量限制中的交互作用。以期为衰老与延缓衰老的机制研究提供新思路。     

高糖诱导小鼠囊胚Caspase-3的表达及其意义

目的探讨高浓度葡萄糖对小鼠囊胚的影响,为防治糖尿病妊娠导致胚胎发育畸形的机制进一步提供理论依据.方法用含不同浓度（0 mmol/L、7.5mmol/L、28.0 mmol/L）D-葡萄糖的培养基体外培养小鼠囊胚24h,再用免疫组织化学S-P法检测小鼠囊胚中Caspase-3的表达.结果用含高浓度葡萄糖培养基培养的小鼠囊胚Caspase-3的表达呈强阳性.结论高浓度葡萄糖对小鼠囊胚有毒性作用,可诱导小鼠囊胚细胞的凋亡,Caspase-3参与了高浓度葡萄糖诱导囊胚细胞的凋亡作用.     

模拟衰老大鼠星形胶质细胞条件培养基对神经干细胞增殖能力的影响

目的建立大鼠星形胶质细胞衰老模型,模拟老年大鼠体内星形胶质细胞衰老,探讨衰老的星形胶质细胞条件培养基对神经干细胞增殖能力的影响。方法采用胰酶消化法分离新生1 d大鼠皮层星形胶质细胞和15 d胎鼠端脑神经干细胞,200μmol/L H_2O_2诱导星型胶质细胞4 h建立衰老模型;收取培养3 d和7 d衰老细胞上清作为条件培养基,以1∶3或1∶2的比例加入神经干细胞增殖培养基中,通过神经干细胞及神经球计数观察对增殖功能的影响,以正常星型胶质细胞条件培养基作为对照。结果 3 d正常条件培养基对神经干细胞短期增殖无影响,对长期增殖有抑制作用; 3 d衰老条件培养基抑制神经干细胞的增殖; 7 d正常条件培养基促进神经干细胞短期增殖,对长期增殖有抑制作用; 7 d衰老条件培养基抑制神经干细胞的增殖,抑制作用大于正常条件培养基。结论 H_2O_2诱导衰老的星形胶质细胞抑制神经干细胞的增殖,对长期增殖的抑制作用大于正常星形胶质细胞。     

兔关节软骨细胞体外三维培养条件的优化

实验使用海藻酸钠水凝胶作为细胞支架.模拟软骨细胞体内生长的三维环境,研究了体外三维培养条件下,不同浓度的胎牛血清(FBS)和硒酸复合液(ITS)体系对兔透明软骨细胞(hyaline cartilage)的牛长、增殖和细胞外基质分泌活动的影响.结果 表明,三维模式培养21天,透明软骨细胞仍然具有较好的增殖活性.在硒酸复合液及低浓度血清时,细胞未去分化,保持分泌Ⅱ型胶原(Collagen Ⅱ)和软骨聚集蛋白聚糖(Aggrecan)的能力,与之比较,高浓度胎牛血清(10%)培养条件下,在21天开始细胞去分化,即硒酸复合液在一定的血清浓度下有助于维持软骨细胞生长、增殖,避免了软骨细胞受高浓度血清影响而去分化.     

Muscle glycogen inharmoniously regulates glycogen synthase activity, glucose uptake, and proximal insulin signaling

Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and incorporation of glucose into skeletal muscle glycogen contribute to physiological regulation of blood glucose concentration. In the present study, glucose handling and insulin signaling in isolated rat muscles with low glycogen (LG, 24-h fasting) and high glycogen (HG, refed for 24 h) content were compared with muscles with normal glycogen (NG, rats kept on their normal diet). In LG, basal and insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis and glycogen synthase activation were higher and glycogen synthase phosphorylation (Ser(645), Ser(649), Ser(653), Ser(657)) lower than in NG. GLUT4 expression, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, and PKB phosphorylation were higher in LG than in NG, whereas insulin receptor tyrosyl phosphorylation, insulin receptor substrate-1-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity, and GSK-3 phosphorylation were unchanged. Muscles with HG showed lower insulin-stimulated glycogen synthesis and glycogen synthase activation than NG despite similar dephosphorylation. Insulin signaling, glucose uptake, and GLUT4 expression were similar in HG and NG. This discordant regulation of glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in HG resulted in higher insulin-stimulated glucose 6-phosphate concentration, higher glycolytic flux, and intracellular accumulation of nonphosphorylated 2-deoxyglucose. In conclusion, elevated glycogen synthase activation, glucose uptake, and GLUT4 expression enhance glycogen resynthesis in muscles with low glycogen. High glycogen concentration per se does not impair proximal insulin signaling or glucose uptake. "Insulin resistance" is observed at the level of glycogen synthase, and the reduced glycogen synthesis leads to increased levels of glucose 6-phosphate, glycolytic flux, and accumulation of nonphosphorylated 2-deoxyglucose.     

维生素E和伊那普利对高糖改变肾小球系膜细胞肌动蛋白组装的影响

研究了维生素E(VE)和伊那普利(EN)对高浓度葡萄糖(HG)所致肾小球系膜细胞(MC)肌动蛋白组装的影响。结果证明,MC在HG培养时,F-actin失去粗大束状外观呈不规则网状,显示F-actin部分去组装。与正常浓度葡萄糖(NG)培养的MC相比,HG引起F-actin荧光强度降低,G-actin荧光强度升高和F/G-actin荧光强度比值下降。VE和EN加入培养后,HG引起的F-actin部分去组装及F-和G-actin荧光强度的变化均恢复正常,提示,VE和EN可防止HG引起的MC actin去组装。     

肌肽对高糖环境下心肌成纤维细胞胶原表达的影响

目的:探讨肌肽对高糖环境下心肌成纤维细胞中胶原生成的影响及作用机制。方法:原代培养心肌成纤维细胞,将细胞分为正常糖组(NG,5.5mmol/L glucose)、高糖组(HG,25mmol/L glucose)、高糖+10mmol/L肌肽组、高糖+20mmol/L肌肽组、高糖+40mmol/L肌肽组、高糖+SB组(HG+10μmol/L SB203580)、高糖+PD组(HG+10μmol/L PD98059)。ELISA检测胶原Ⅰ、Ⅲ的含量,Western blot检测TGF-β1、p-p38 MAPK和p-ERK(1/2)等蛋白的表达。结果:与正常糖组相比,高糖组中胶原Ⅰ和胶原Ⅲ含量增加(P<0.01);TGF-β1、p-p38和p-ERK等表达增加(P<0.01);与高糖组相比,高糖+肌肽组中胶原Ⅰ、Ⅲ、TGF-β1、p-p38、和p-ERK等均降低(P<0.05);高糖+SB组和高糖+PD组中胶原Ⅰ、Ⅲ表达减少(P<0.05)。结论:肌肽对心肌成纤维细胞中胶原生成具有抑制作用,且通过MAPK通路实现。     

PDGF-β receptor and PKC have no effect on angiotensin II-induced JAK2 and STAT1 phosphorylation in vascular smooth muscle cells under high glucose condition

Background: The mechanisms responsible for the accelerated cardiovascular disease in diabetes, as well as the increased hypertrophic effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) under hyperglycemic condition, are not very clear. Evidences show that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and protein kinase C (PKC) play a critical role in this effect. In our study, we examined the role of PKC and PDGF receptor on JAK2 and STAT1 phosphorylation under high glucose (HG) condition (25 mmol/L) in response to Ang II in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC).

Methods: VSMCs were isolated from the thoracic aorta of male Wistar rats and were cultured. Growth-arrested VSMCs were placed in either normal glucose (NG) or HG condition for 48?h and then VSMCs were stimulated with agonists and antagonists. The tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2 or STAT were determined by immunoblotting using specific antibodies.

Results: High glucose markedly increased the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues of JAK2 and serine residues of STAT 1 compared with cells cultured in NG (5.5 mmol/L) with and without Ang II stimulation. Experiments made with specific PDGF-β receptor inhibitor AG1295 and PKC inhibitor GF109203X showed that there were no changes in Ang II-stimulated JAK2 and STAT1 phosphorylation under NG and HG conditions compared with experiments without inhibitors.

Conclusion: According to our findings, Ang II-stimulated JAK2 and STAT1 phosphorylation under either NG or HG condition do not proceed via a different pathway rather than PKC and PDGF-β receptor.     

p16(INK4a) suppression by glucose restriction contributes to human cellular lifespan extension through SIRT1-mediated epigenetic and genetic mechanisms

Although caloric restriction (CR) has been shown to increase lifespan in various animal models, the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon have not yet been revealed. We developed an in vitro system to mimic CR by reducing glucose concentration in cell growth medium which excludes metabolic factors and allows assessment of the effects of CR at the cellular and molecular level. We monitored cellular proliferation of normal WI-38, IMR-90 and MRC-5 human lung fibroblasts and found that glucose restriction (GR) can inhibit cellular senescence and significantly extend cellular lifespan compared with cells receiving normal glucose (NG) in the culture medium. Moreover, GR decreased expression of p16(INK4a) (p16), a well-known senescence-related gene, in all of the tested cell lines. Over-expressed p16 resulted in early replicative senescence in glucose-restricted cells suggesting a crucial role of p16 regulation in GR-induced cellular lifespan extension. The decreased expression of p16 was partly due to GR-induced chromatin remodeling through effects on histone acetylation and methylation of the p16 promoter. GR resulted in an increased expression of SIRT1, a NAD-dependent histone deacetylase, which has positive correlation with CR-induced longevity. The elevated SIRT1 was accompanied by enhanced activation of the Akt/p70S6K1 signaling pathway in response to GR. Furthermore, knockdown of SIRT1 abolished GR-induced p16 repression as well as Akt/p70S6K1 activation implying that SIRT1 may affect p16 repression through direct deacetylation effects and indirect regulation of Akt/p70S6K1 signaling. Collectively, these results provide new insights into interactions between epigenetic and genetic mechanisms on CR-induced longevity that may contribute to anti-aging approaches and also provide a general molecular model for studying CR in vitro in mammalian systems.     

Insulin resistance of glycogen synthase mediated by o-linked N-acetylglucosamine

We have investigated the mechanism by which high concentrations of glucose inhibit insulin stimulation of glycogen synthase. In NIH-3T3-L1 adipocytes cultured in low glucose (LG; 2.5 mm), the half-maximal activation concentration (A(0.5)) of glucose 6-phosphate was 162 +/- 15 microm. Exposure to either high glucose (HG; 20 mm) or glucosamine (GlcN; 10 mm) increased the A(0.5) to 558 +/- 61 or 612 +/- 34 microm. Insulin treatment with LG reduced the A(0.5) to 96 +/- 10 microm, but cells cultured with HG or GlcN were insulin-resistant (A(0.5) = 287 +/- 27 or 561 +/- 77 microm). Insulin resistance was not explained by increased phosphorylation of synthase. In fact, culture with GlcN decreased phosphorylation to 61% of the levels seen in cells cultured in LG. Hexosamine flux and subsequent enzymatic protein O-glycosylation have been postulated to mediate nutrient sensing and insulin resistance. Glycogen synthase is modified by O-linked N-acetylglucosamine, and the level of glycosylation increased in cells treated with HG or GlcN. Treatment of synthase in vitro with protein phosphatase 1 increased basal synthase activity from cells cultured in LG to 54% of total activity but was less effective with synthase from cells cultured in HG or GlcN, increasing basal activity to only 13 or 16%. After enzymatic removal of O-GlcNAc, however, subsequent digestion with phosphatase increased basal activity to over 73% for LG, HG, and GlcN. We conclude that O-GlcNAc modification of glycogen synthase results in the retention of the enzyme in a glucose 6-phosphate-dependent state and contributes to the reduced activation of the enzyme in insulin resistance.     

Angiotensin II‐induced redox‐sensitive SGLT1 and 2 expression promotes high glucose‐induced endothelial cell senescence

High glucose (HG)‐induced endothelial senescence and dysfunction contribute to the increased cardiovascular risk in diabetes. Empagliflozin, a selective sodium glucose co‐transporter2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, reduced the risk of cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetic patients but the protective mechanism remains unclear. This study examines the role of SGLT2 in HG‐induced endothelial senescence and dysfunction. Porcine coronary artery cultured endothelial cells (ECs) or segments were exposed to HG (25 mmol/L) before determination of senescence‐associated beta‐galactosidase activity, protein level by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining, mRNA by RT‐PCR, nitric oxide (NO) by electron paramagnetic resonance, oxidative stress using dihydroethidium and glucose uptake using 2‐NBD‐glucose. HG increased ECs senescence markers and oxidative stress, down‐regulated eNOS expression and NO formation, and induced the expression of VCAM‐1, tissue factor, and the local angiotensin system, all these effects were prevented by empagliflozin. Empagliflozin and LX‐4211 (dual SGLT1/2 inhibitor) reduced glucose uptake stimulated by HG and H₂O₂ in ECs. HG increased SGLT1 and 2 protein levels in cultured ECs and native endothelium. Inhibition of the angiotensin system prevented HG‐induced ECs senescence and SGLT1 and 2 expression. Thus, HG‐induced ECs ageing is driven by the local angiotensin system via the redox‐sensitive up‐regulation of SGLT1 and 2, and, in turn, enhanced glucotoxicity.     

雌激素处理的hBMSC对高糖诱导血管内皮细胞损伤的保护作用*

目的: 探讨雌激素处理人骨髓间充质干细胞(hBMSC)对高糖诱导的人脐静脉血管内皮细胞(HUVEC)损伤的保护作用及机制。方法: 采用30 mmol/L葡萄糖刺激hBMSC细胞建立高糖模型并分组:以无刺激者为高糖对照组(HG组)、以20 μmol/L雌激素处理者为高糖雌激素组(HG+E2组)、以5 μmo/L蛋白激酶B(PKB/Akt)抑制剂Triciribine预处理45 min后,再以20 μmol/L雌激素处理者为高糖Akt抑制剂组(HG+E2+Triciribine组)和正常条件培养的hBMSC为正常对照组(NG组)。分别于处理12 h后,采用CCK8法检测各组hBMSC的细胞活力,硝酸还原酶法和ELISA法检测各组培养基上清中NO、VEGF和IL-8的含量(n=6),48 h后采用Western blot检测内皮型一氧化氮合酶(eNOS)和磷酸化eNOS(p-eNOS)蛋白表达水平(n=3)。此外,提取各组hBMSC的培养基上清作为条件培养基(CM)培养人脐静脉血管内皮细胞(HUVEC)并分组为:HG-CM组(HG组条件培养基处理)、HG+E2-CM组(HG+E2组条件培养液处理)、HG+E2+Triciribine-CM组(HG+E2+Triciribine组条件培养基处理)和HG-H组(高糖对照组,30 mmol/L葡萄糖终浓度处理),分别于12 h后,采用CCK8法检测各组HUVEC的细胞活力(n=6),24 h后采用流式细胞术检测各组HUVEC细胞的凋亡率(n=3);48 h后采用划痕实验观察各组HUVEC细胞的迁移率(n=3)。结果: 与NG组相比,HG组中hBMSC细胞活力和细胞内eNOS蛋白磷酸化水平降低(P<0.05),细胞培养液上清中NO、VEGF和IL-8含量减少(P<0.05);与HG组相比,HG+E2组中hBMSC的细胞活力和细胞中eNOS蛋白磷酸化水平显著增加(P<0.05),细胞培养基上清中NO、VEGF和IL-8含量增加(P<0.05),而当hBMSC细胞中Akt蛋白活性被抑制后,HG+E2+Triciribine组中上述结果指标呈反向变化(P<0.05)。此外,与HG-CM组相比,HG+E2-CM组中HUVECs的细胞活力和迁移能力显著增加(P<0.05),细胞凋亡比例降低(P<0.05),而与HG+E2-CM组相比,HG+E2+Triciribine-CM组中HUVECs的细胞活力和迁移能力降低(P<0.05),细胞凋亡比例增加(P< 0.05)。结论: 雌激素可能通过激活hBMSC细胞Akt/eNOS信号通路,促进NO、VEGF和IL-8的分泌,进而增加HUVECs的细胞活力和迁移能力,并抑制细胞凋亡的发生,对高糖诱导的HUVECs细胞损伤发挥保护作用。     

Glycogen content and contraction regulate glycogen synthase phosphorylation and affinity for UDP-glucose in rat skeletal muscles

Glycogen content and contraction strongly regulate glycogen synthase (GS) activity, and the aim of the present study was to explore their effects and interaction on GS phosphorylation and kinetic properties. Glycogen content in rat epitrochlearis muscles was manipulated in vivo. After manipulation, incubated muscles with normal glycogen [NG; 210.9 +/- 7.1 mmol/kg dry weight (dw)], low glycogen (LG; 108.1 +/- 4.5 mmol/ kg dw), and high glycogen (HG; 482.7 +/- 42.1 mmol/kg dw) were contracted or rested before the studies of GS kinetic properties and GS phosphorylation (using phospho-specific antibodies). LG decreased and HG increased GS K(m) for UDP-glucose (LG: 0.27 +/- 0.02 < NG: 0.71 +/- 0.06 < HG: 1.11 +/- 0.12 mM; P < 0.001). In addition, GS fractional activity inversely correlated with glycogen content (R = -0.70; P < 0.001; n = 44). Contraction decreased K(m) for UDP-glucose (LG: 0.14 +/- 0.01 = NG: 0.16 +/- 0.01 < HG: 0.33 +/- 0.03 mM; P < 0.001) and increased GS fractional activity, and these effects were observed independently of glycogen content. In rested muscles, GS Ser(641) and Ser(7) phosphorylation was decreased in LG and increased in HG compared with NG. GSK-3beta Ser(9) and AMPKalpha Thr(172) phosphorylation was not modulated by glycogen content in rested muscles. Contraction decreased phosphorylation of GS Ser(641) at all glycogen contents. However, contraction increased GS Ser(7) phosphorylation even though GS was strongly activated. In conclusion, glycogen content regulates GS affinity for UDP-glucose and low affinity for UDP-glucose in muscles with high glycogen content may reduce glycogen accumulation. Contraction increases GS affinity for UDP-glucose independently of glycogen content and creates a unique phosphorylation pattern.