七甲川菁近红外荧光染料对胃癌原位移植模型的靶向识别

目的研究七甲川菁近红外荧光(NIRF)染料在胃癌原位移植模型活体成像中的应用效果。方法将标记荧光酶素的人胃癌细胞系Hep G2原位移植裸鼠建立肿瘤模型,同时诱发制备胃溃疡模型;对上述模型分别采用生物发光成像和NIRF成像,观察胃癌组织对近红外荧光染料的吸收;探索缺氧和阴离子转运肽(OATP)对胃癌组织吸收NIRF染料的影响,明确NIRF染料靶向识别肿瘤细胞的特异性。结果 NIRF信号与生物发光信号在胃癌原位移植模型活体成像中具有较好的相关性。胃癌组织部位可获得较强的NIRF荧光信号,而胃溃疡部位未检测到荧光信号。缺氧能够增强胃癌细胞对NIRF染料的吸收,而阴离子转运肽特异性抑制剂磺溴酞钠(BSP)能够显著降低肿瘤细胞对NIRF染料的吸收。结论七甲川菁近红外荧光染料能够靶向识别胃癌原位移植模型。     

新型七甲川菁染料用作肿瘤模型活体成像的研究进展

一种近红外荧光(NIRF)七甲川菁染料不需要化学修饰,可直接被肿瘤细胞吸收呈特异性聚集,从而可用于肿瘤活体成像。这种染料在肿瘤细胞与正常细胞之间的摄取差异可能是由于特异型有机阴离子转运肽的作用,并受到低氧条件控制。这些特性将会拓展NIRF类染料在肿瘤成像研究中的应用。     

基于近红外荧光制剂的多模态多功能分子影像技术在肿瘤模型中的应用

多模态融合的分子影像技术整合了多种分子影像技术的优势,已成为当前分子影像领域研究的热点和发展趋势。新近报道的七甲川菁(heptamethine cyanine)染料是一类具有肿瘤靶向性的近红外荧光(nearinfrared fluorescence,NIRF)制剂。该染料独特的光学特征使其在肿瘤分子影像、靶向治疗和药物传递系统方面具有广阔的应用前景。纳米材料包裹该类染料可用于NIRF/MRI双模成像,标记核素后可实现NIRF/PET双模成像,共轭结合化疗药物后,可实现抗肿瘤药物的靶向传递,多个七甲川菁染料的复合物已被用作多模态成像,成为光热、光动力学和组合治疗肿瘤的新策略。     

FTS与NIRF共轭化合物用于小鼠肿瘤模型的成像和治疗

目的研究法尼基硫代水杨酸(farnesylthiosalicylic Acid,FTS)与七甲川菁(heptamethine carbocyanine)近红外(near infrared,NIR)荧光染料共轭化合物的肿瘤靶向性及其在活体成像中的应用,明确该化合物对肿瘤生长的抑制作用。方法将人乳腺癌细胞MCF-7、胶质瘤细胞U251和前列腺癌细胞PC3培养至对数生长期后,分别加入不同浓度的FTS和FTS-IR783,观察两种化合物对肿瘤细胞的生长抑制作用;培养的三种肿瘤细胞中加入FTS-IR783(20μmol/L),荧光显微镜下观察荧光染料在肿瘤细胞中的聚集;将三种肿瘤细胞(每只1×10~6个)皮下移植裸鼠,两周后荷瘤鼠腹腔注射FTS-IR783(每只10 nmol/L),活体成像分别测定肿瘤部位近红外荧光信号和肿瘤体积的相关性。结果与FTS相比较,FTS-IR783可显著抑制MCF-7、U251和PC3的生长;三种肿瘤细胞可特异性识别FTS-IR783,呈现近红外荧光集聚;皮下荷瘤模型注射FTS-IR783后,活体成像显示肿瘤部位荧光强度与生物发光强度相关性分别达到0.987,0.998和0.971。结论 FTS与近红外荧光染料IR-783共轭结合后可特异性识别肿瘤细胞,用于肿瘤模型的活体成像,同时该化合物具有的肿瘤靶向性可显著抑制肿瘤细胞的生长,有望成为新型的靶向药物。     

近红外荧光染料IR-783在膀胱癌中的成像研究

目的:观察研究近红外荧光染料IR-783在膀胱癌中的特异性成像。方法:通过染料与膀胱癌细胞及正常细胞共孵育,观察近红外荧光染料IR-783是否能够实现膀胱癌细胞的选择性成像。利用细胞器示踪剂观察近红外荧光染料在膀胱癌细胞内的共定位;使用IR-783检测循环血液中及尿液中的膀胱癌细胞。结果:近红外荧光染料IR-783可被膀胱癌细胞选择性摄取。IR-783可选择性聚集在膜性细胞器如线粒体和溶酶体内,这种选择性聚集作用使IR-783可以保持较长的染色效果。近红外染料可以检测到血液或尿液极少量的膀胱癌细胞。结论:近红外荧光染料IR-783能够被膀胱癌细胞特异性吸收,可用于血液和尿液中膀胱肿瘤细胞的特异性诊断,具有重要的临床应用前景。     

近红外荧光染料IR-783介导的肿瘤成像

目的评估近红外荧光染料IR-783在犬自发性肿瘤中的特异性成像。方法将IR-783染料(5μmol/kg)腹腔注射荷瘤裸鼠,通过活体成像仪检测IR-783的代谢周期,在此基础上,将IR-783染料(1.5μmol/kg)通过后肢静脉注射入自发肿瘤犬体内,5 d后手术切除肿瘤组织,分别进行荧光成像、组织切片HE染色、冰冻切片荧光观察。结果 IR-783染料注射荷瘤裸鼠后可以在肿瘤部位检测到特异性荧光,连续观察8 d,仍有较强的荧光。IR-783注射自发肿瘤犬5 d后,可在肿瘤组织中检测到特异性荧光。结论近红外荧光染料IR-783能够被肿瘤组织特异性吸收,可用于犬自发性肿瘤的特异性诊断,具有重要的临床应用前景。     

胃癌血管靶向肽GX1修饰的人血清白蛋白用于胃癌近红外活体成像

目的:以肿瘤血管靶向肽GX1修饰的人血清白蛋白(HSA)作为吲哚菁绿(ICG)的载体,合成近红外荧光探针GX1-HSA-ICG,研究其作为近红外荧光探针在荷人胃癌裸鼠活体中的靶向成像能力。方法:以HSA作为ICG的载体,通过化学修饰与GX1共价连接,合成GX1-HSA-ICG纳米颗粒探针;使用SDS-PAGE对探针合成进行鉴定;采用探针与脐静脉内皮细胞HUVEC以及与肿瘤细胞共培养的脐静脉内皮细胞Co-HUVEC进行结合和竞争抑制试验,验证探针和Co-HUVEC细胞结合的特异性;利用小动物活体成像系统对皮下荷胃癌小鼠进行近红外荧光活体成像,验证探针在体内的胃癌靶向性。结果:成功合成GX1-HSA-ICG。细胞结合与竞争抑制实验显示GX1-HSA-ICG可与Co-HUVEC细胞特异性结合;荷瘤小鼠活体成像也显示出GX1-HSA-ICG较ICG有更长体内的循环时间,并且胃癌组织局部较HSA-ICG有更强的聚集。结论:本研究成功合成了胃癌血管靶向肽GX1修饰的HSA为荧光染料载体的胃癌血管靶向探针,成功对荷胃癌裸鼠进行了活体成像。使用HSA为载体的探针较单纯使用ICG的肿瘤局部滞留能力显著提高,GX1增加了探针的胃癌靶向特异性。该探针在胃癌的早期诊断和抗肿瘤血管生成治疗评估中具有潜在的应用价值。     

固气界面上花菁染料J-聚集体的研究

研究固气界面上花菁染料J-聚集体的光学性质、形貌特点和形成机制。以花菁染料为研究对象,在云母基底表面制备花菁染料的超分子J-聚集体,根据J-聚集体独特的光学性能,通过紫外吸收光谱,荧光光谱,荧光显微镜等对云母界面上的花菁染料聚集体进行光谱测量和形貌表征。结果表明：云母／空气界面上的花菁染料聚集体在580nm处出现相对于染料单体红移且狭窄的强吸收峰,而在583nm处出现一个伴随微弱Stokes位移的荧光峰,这些结果符合吸附在基质上的J-聚集体的光学特征,同时荧光显微镜观察表明云母基底上分散分布着2～4μm微晶棒状的聚集体。结果证明：花菁染料能够在云母／空气界面生成超分子J-聚集体,其形成机制是通过带正电荷的花菁染料分子与云母基底表面带负电荷的空穴通过外延相互作用形成的。     

电子移位亲脂性阳离子:选择性肿瘤细胞线粒体毒性分子

寻找能够靶向杀灭肿瘤细胞的药物和治疗方案是目前肿瘤治疗领域的重要课题。电子移位亲脂性阳离子(delocalized lipophilic cation,DLC)能够在细胞跨膜电位的推动下,进入细胞质及线粒体内。由于肿瘤细胞的线粒体和／或细胞膜膜电位远远高于正常细胞,可提供更大的推动力,使DLC在肿瘤细胞线粒体内选择性的积聚,而DLC在高浓度下将表现出线粒体毒性,导致肿瘤细胞死亡。目前已发现几种DLC,表现出一定选择性抗肿瘤活性,并在此基础上建立肿瘤细胞线粒体靶向性的DNA／药物传送系统。     

核酸适配体介导的多药耐药性肿瘤的治疗

化疗是目前肿瘤治疗最常见的方法。然而,肿瘤细胞的多药耐药（multidrug resistance,MDR）常导致临床化疗失败及患者的死亡。因此,干预和逆转肿瘤多药耐药,提高化疗效果,对于肿瘤的治疗具有重要的意义。核酸适配体是一种短的单链寡核苷酸,通过折叠形成特定空间结构从而与靶标特异性结合。靶向肿瘤的核酸适配体可以选择性地将治疗性物质（抗癌药物,siRNA,miRNA）和药物载体递送至肿瘤中,对肿瘤进行靶向杀伤。利用核酸适配体靶向多药耐药性肿瘤,能够特异性干预甚至逆转肿瘤的多药耐药性。本文概述了核酸适配体介导的干预与逆转肿瘤多药耐药性的研究进展。     

Potential efficacy of cell-penetrating peptides for nucleic acid and drug delivery in cancer

Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short amphipathic and cationic peptides that are rapidly internalized across cell membranes. They can be used to deliver molecular cargo, such as imaging agents (fluorescent dyes and quantum dots), drugs, liposomes, peptide/protein, oligonucleotide/DNA/RNA, nanoparticles and bacteriophage into cells. The utilized CPP, attached cargo, concentration and cell type, all significantly affect the mechanism of internalization. The mechanism of cellular uptake and subsequent processing still remains controversial. It is now clear that CPP can mediate intracellular delivery via both endocytic and non-endocytic pathways. In addition, the orientation of the peptide and cargo and the type of linkage are likely important. In gene therapy, the designed cationic peptides must be able to 1) tightly condense DNA into small, compact particles; 2) target the condensate to specific cell surface receptors; 3) induce endosomal escape; and 4) target the DNA cargo to the nucleus for gene expression. The other studies have demonstrated that these small peptides can be conjugated to tumor homing peptides in order to achieve tumor-targeted delivery in vivo. On the other hand, one of the major aims in molecular cancer research is the development of new therapeutic strategies and compounds that target directly the genetic and biochemical agents of malignant transformation. For example, cell penetrating peptide aptamers might disrupt protein-protein interactions crucial for cancer cell growth or survival. In this review, we discuss potential functions of CPPs especially for drug and gene delivery in cancer and indicate their powerful promise for clinical efficacy.     

Understanding the metabolic basis of drug resistance: Therapeutic induction of the Warburg effect kills cancer cells

Previously, we identified a form of epithelial-stromal metabolic coupling, in which cancer cells induce aerobic glycolysis in adjacent stromal fibroblasts, via oxidative stress, driving autophagy and mitophagy. In turn, these cancer-associated fibroblasts provide recycled nutrients to epithelial cancer cells, “fueling” oxidative mitochondrial metabolism and anabolic growth. An additional consequence is that these glycolytic fibroblasts protect cancer cells against apoptosis, by providing a steady nutrient stream to mitochondria in cancer cells. Here, we investigated whether these interactions might be the basis of tamoxifen-resistance in ER(+) breast cancer cells. We show that MCF7 cells alone are Tamoxifen-sensitive, but become resistant when co-cultured with hTERT-immortalized human fibroblasts. Next, we searched for a drug combination (Tamoxifen + Dasatinib) that could over-come fibroblast-induced Tamoxifen-resistance. Importantly, we show that this drug combination acutely induces the Warburg effect (aerobic glycolysis) in MCF7 cancer cells, abruptly cutting off their ability to use their fuel supply, effectively killing these cancer cells. Thus, we believe that the Warburg effect in tumor cells is not the “root cause” of cancer, but rather it may provide the necessary clues to preventing chemoresistance in cancer cells. Finally, we observed that this drug combination (Tamoxifen + Dasatinib) also had a generalized anti-oxidant effect, on both co-cultured fibroblasts and cancer cells alike, potentially reducing tumor-stroma co-evolution. Our results are consistent with the idea that chemo-resistance may be both a metabolic and stromal phenomenon that can be overcome by targeting mitochondrial function in epithelial cancer cells. Thus, simultaneously targeting both (1) the tumor stroma and (2) the epithelial cancer cells, with combination therapies, may be the most successful approach to anti-cancer therapy. This general strategy of combination therapy for overcoming drug resistance could be applicable to many different types of cancer.Key words: drug resistance, tamoxifen, dasatinib, tumor stroma, microenvironment, Warburg effect, aerobic glycolysis, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, glucose uptake, oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS), cancer-associated fibroblasts     

Prodrug activation enzymes in cancer gene therapy

Among the broad array of genes that have been evaluated for tumor therapy, those encoding prodrug activation enzymes are especially appealing as they directly complement ongoing clinical chemotherapeutic regimes. These enzymes can activate prodrugs that have low inherent toxicity using both bacterial and yeast enzymes, or enhance prodrug activation by mammalian enzymes. The general advantage of the former is the large therapeutic index that can be achieved, and of the latter, the non-immunogenicity (supporting longer periods of prodrug activation) and the fact that the prodrugs will continue to have some efficacy after transgene expression is extinguished. This review article describes 13 different prodrug activation schemes developed over the last 15 years, two of which - activation of ganciclovir by viral thymidine kinase and activation of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil - are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. Essentially all of these prodrug activation enzymes mediate toxicity through disruption of DNA replication, which occurs at differentially high rates in tumor cells compared with most normal cells. In cancer gene therapy, vectors target delivery of therapeutic genes to tumor cells, in contrast to the use of antibodies in antibody-directed prodrug therapy. Vector targeting is usually effected by direct injection into the tumor mass or surrounding tissues, but the efficiency of gene delivery is usually low. Thus it is important that the activated drug is able to act on non-transduced tumor cells. This bystander effect may require cell-to-cell contact or be mediated by facilitated diffusion or extracellular activation to target neighboring tumor cells. Effects at distant sites are believed to be mediated by the immune system, which can be mobilized to recognize tumor antigens by prodrug-activated gene therapy. Prodrug activation schemes can be combined with each other and with other treatments, such as radiation, in a synergistic manner. Use of prodrug wafers for intratumoral drug activation and selective permeabilization of the tumor vasculature to prodrugs and vectors should further increase the value of this new therapeutic modality.     

Understanding the metabolic basis of drug resistance

Previously, we identified a form of epithelial-stromal metabolic coupling, in which cancer cells induce aerobic glycolysis in adjacent stromal fibroblasts, via oxidative stress, driving autophagy and mitophagy. In turn, these cancer-associated fibroblasts provide recycled nutrients to epithelial cancer cells, "fueling" oxidative mitochondrial metabolism and anabolic growth. An additional consequence is that these glycolytic fibroblasts protect cancer cells against apoptosis, by providing a steady nutrient stream of to mitochondria in cancer cells. Here, we investigated whether these interactions might be the basis of tamoxifen-resistance in ER(+) breast cancer cells. We show that MCF7 cells alone are Tamoxifen-sensitive, but become resistant when co-cultured with hTERT-immortalized human fibroblasts. Next, we searched for a drug combination (Tamoxifen + Dasatinib) that could over-come fibroblast-induced Tamoxifen-resistance. Importantly, we show that this drug combination acutely induces the Warburg effect (aerobic glycolysis) in MCF7 cancer cells, abruptly cutting off their ability to use their fuel supply, effectively killing these cancer cells. Thus, we believe that the Warburg effect in tumor cells is not the "root cause" of cancer, but rather it may provide the necessary clues to preventing chemo-resistance in cancer cells. Finally, we observed that this drug combination (Tamoxifen + Dasatinib) also had a generalized anti-oxidant effect, on both co-cultured fibroblasts and cancer cells alike, potentially reducing tumor-stroma co-evolution. Our results are consistent with the idea that chemo-resistance may be both a metabolic and stromal phenomenon that can be overcome by targeting mitochondrial function in epithelial cancer cells. Thus, simultaneously targeting both (1) the tumor stroma and (2) the epithelial cancer cells, with combination therapies, may be the most successful approach to anti-cancer therapy. This general strategy of combination therapy for overcoming drug resistance could be applicable to many different types of cancer.     

Improved mitochondrial targeting effect of HPMA copolymer by SS20 peptide mediation and nonendocytosis pathway

Mitochondrion plays an important role in executing cell programmed death pathway. Therefore, drugs designed to target mitochondria are supposed to make superior contributions to cancer therapy. However, the problem that drugs or drug delivery systems being sequestrated in endosomes/lysosomes needs to be solved for effective drug delivery. Here, mitochondrial targeting and nonendocytic cell entry peptide SS20 modified HPMA copolymer (P‐FITC‐SS20) was synthesized. With SS20 peptide modification, the uptake behavior of HPMA copolymers changed remarkably compared with unmodified ones. The internalization of P‐FITC‐SS20 was not influenced by endocytic inhibitors and temperature. Further, the internalized copolymers were not trapped in endosomes/lysosomes. Although cellular uptake of HPMA copolymer was decreased after SS20 peptide modification, SS20 peptide significantly improved mitochondrial accumulation of HPMA copolymers due to its outstanding mitochondrial targeting ability. Moreover, owing to lower susceptibility to macrophagocyte in blood, P‐SS20‐Cy5 showed longer blood circulation time and enhanced tumor accumulation. The current study validated that SS20 peptide modification is a promising strategy for mitochondrial targeting drug delivery systems and can be further applied to mitochondria associated diseases to improve therapeutic efficacy.     

甲胎蛋白携带药物靶向治疗肿瘤

甲胎蛋白（alpha fetoprotein, AFP）是一种在胎儿发育时期高表达的蛋白质,它又是一种穿梭蛋白质,能够将营养物质输送给胚胎细胞。相似的是,在肝癌等恶性肿瘤发展时期,肿瘤细胞也高表达AFP及其受体,它们通过AFP受体摄取AFP及其运载的物质。因此,可以将AFP与抗癌药物结合,选择性攻击肿瘤细胞。AFP与药物的结合方式有多种,它可以和药物非共价结合,药物被包裹在AFP的疏水袋中;也可以通过共价键与药物结合,或者利用AFP与纳米颗粒和脂质体连接来提高输送药物的效果,肿瘤细胞的酸性环境能促使结合的药物有效释放。为了避免AFP致癌的风险,还可以通过改造AFP或利用AFP片段来输送药物。由于AFP介导的肿瘤靶向治疗主要是攻击具有AFP受体的癌细胞,因此对正常细胞影响并不大。AFP携带药物不仅能促进肿瘤细胞对药物的吸收、提高药物的抗肿瘤活性,还能克服多重耐药（multidrug resistance, MDR）问题。另外,AFP携带药物还具有免疫治疗的效果。AFP携带药物不仅能激活T细胞受体,消除免疫耐受,抑制肿瘤的生长,还能利用改造好的AFP靶向抑制髓源性抑制细胞（myeloid-derived suppressor cells, MDSCs）,激活NK细胞和T细胞,从而破坏癌细胞以及阻止癌干细胞的转移。因此,AFP携带药物治疗是免疫治疗与靶向化疗相结合的新疗法,它将成为治疗癌症的一种策略。     

Bacterially-Derived Nanocells for Tumor-Targeted Delivery of Chemotherapeutics and Cell Cycle Inhibitors

Chemotherapeutic drug therapy in cancer is seriously hampered by severe toxicity primarily due to indiscriminate drug distribution and consequent collateral damage to normal cells. Molecularly targeted drugs such as cell cycle inhibitors are being developed to achieve a higher degree of tumor cell specificity and reduce toxic side effects. Unfortunately, relative to the cytotoxics, many of the molecularly targeted drugs are less potent and the target protein is expressed only at certain stages of the cell cycle thus necessitating regimens like continuous infusion therapy to arrest a significant number of tumor cells in a heterogeneous tumor mass. Here we discuss targeted drug delivery nanovectors and a recently reported bacterially-derived 400nm sized minicell that can be packaged with therapeutically significant concentrations of chemotherapeutic drugs, targeted to tumor cell surface receptors and effect intracellular drug delivery with highly significant anti-tumor effects in-vivo. We also report that molecularly targeted drugs can also be packaged in minicells and targeted to tumor cells with highly significant tumor growth-inhibition and regression in mouse xenografts despite administration of minute amounts of drug. This targeted intracellular drug delivery may overcome many of the hurdles associated with the delivery of cytotoxic and molecularly targeted drugs.     

Biomaterial-based technologies for brain anti-cancer therapeutics and imaging

Treating malignant brain tumors represents one of the most formidable challenges in oncology. Contemporary treatment of brain tumors has been hampered by limited drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) to the tumor bed. Biomaterials are playing an increasingly important role in developing more effective brain tumor treatments. In particular, polymer (nano)particles can provide prolonged drug delivery directly to the tumor following direct intracerebral injection, by making them physiochemically able to cross the BBB to the tumor, or by functionalizing the material surface with peptides and ligands allowing the drug-loaded material to be systemically administered but still specifically target the tumor endothelium or tumor cells themselves. Biomaterials can also serve as targeted delivery devices for novel therapies including gene therapy, photodynamic therapy, anti-angiogenic and thermotherapy. Nanoparticles also have the potential to play key roles in the diagnosis and imaging of brain tumors by revolutionizing both preoperative and intraoperative brain tumor detection, allowing early detection of pre-cancerous cells, and providing real-time, longitudinal, non-invasive monitoring/imaging of the effects of treatment. Additional efforts are focused on developing biomaterial systems that are uniquely capable of delivering tumor-associated antigens, immunotherapeutic agents or programming immune cells in situ to identify and facilitate immune-mediated tumor cell killing. The continued translation of current research into clinical practice will rely on solving challenges relating to the pharmacology of nanoparticles but it is envisioned that novel biomaterials will ultimately allow clinicians to target tumors and introduce multiple, pharmaceutically relevant entities for simultaneous targeting, imaging, and therapy in a unique and unprecedented manner.     

IMD-0354 Targets Breast Cancer Stem Cells: A Novel Approach for an Adjuvant to Chemotherapy to Prevent Multidrug Resistance in a Murine Model

Although early detection of breast cancer improved in recent years, prognosis of patients with late stage breast cancer remains poor, mostly due to development of multidrug resistance (MDR) followed by tumor recurrence. Cancer stem cells (CSCs), with higher drug efflux capability and other stem cell-like properties, are concentrated in a side population (SP) of cells, which were proposed to be responsible for MDR and tumor repopulation that cause patients to succumb to breast cancer. Therefore, targeting of CSCs as an adjuvant to chemotherapy should be able to provide a more effective treatment of this disease. Here, we used IMD-0354, an inhibitor of NF-κB, identified for targeting CSCs, in a combination therapy with doxorubicin encapsulated in targeted nanoparticles. IMD-0354 did target CSCs, evidenced by a decrease in the SP, demonstrated by the inhibition of the following: dye/drug efflux, reduction in ABC transporters as well as in colony formation in soft agar and low attachment plates. Decrease of stem-like gene expression of Oct4, Nanog and Sox2, and apoptosis resistance related to the Survivin gene also was observed after treatment with this compound. In addition, IMD-0354 targeted non-CSCs as indicated by reducing viability and increasing apoptosis. Targeted drug delivery, achieved with a legumain inhibitor, proved to enhance drug delivery under hypoxia, a hallmark of the tumor microenvironment, but not under normoxia. Together, this allowed a safe, non-toxic delivery of both anticancer agents to the tumor microenvironment of mice bearing syngeneic metastatic breast cancer. Targeting both bulk tumor cells with a chemotherapeutic agent and CSCs with IMD-0354 should be able to reduce MDR. This could eventually result in decreasing tumor recurrences and/or improve the outcome of metastatic disease.     

Ketone bodies and two-compartment tumor metabolism: Stromal ketone production fuels mitochondrial biogenesis in epithelial cancer cells

We have previously suggested that ketone body metabolism is critical for tumor progression and metastasis. Here, using a co-culture system employing human breast cancer cells (MCF7) and hTERT-immortalized fibroblasts, we provide new evidence to directly support this hypothesis. More specifically, we show that the enzymes required for ketone body production are highly upregulated within cancer-associated fibroblasts. This appears to be mechanistically controlled by the stromal expression of caveolin-1 (Cav-1) and/or serum starvation. In addition, treatment with ketone bodies (such as 3-hydroxy-butyrate, and/or butanediol) is sufficient to drive mitochondrial biogenesis in human breast cancer cells. This observation was also validated by unbiased proteomic analysis. Interestingly, an MCT1 inhibitor was sufficient to block the onset of mitochondrial biogenesis in human breast cancer cells, suggesting a possible avenue for anticancer therapy. Finally, using human breast cancer tumor samples, we directly confirmed that the enzymes associated with ketone body production (HMGCS2, HMGCL and BDH1) were preferentially expressed in the tumor stroma. Conversely, enzymes associated with ketone re-utilization (ACAT1) and mitochondrial biogenesis (HSP60) were selectively associated with the epithelial tumor cell compartment. Our current findings are consistent with the “two-compartment tumor metabolism” model. Furthermore, they suggest that we should target ketone body metabolism as a new area for drug discovery, for the prevention and treatment of human cancers.