盐皮质激素的非基因组作用及其机制

盐皮质激素(以醛固酮为代表)是调节机体水盐代谢的重要甾体激素,有着重要的生理、病理功能,阐明其作用机制具有重要的基础和临床意义.现已明确,醛固酮的作用有经典的基因组作用和快速的非基因组作用.关于前者,人们已有较多的评述,本文旨在综述近年来有关醛固酮非基因组作用及其可能分子机制的研究进展.目前的研究表明,醛固酮既可能通过膜受体,又可能通过核受体发挥快速非基因组作用.非基因组作用可以激活细胞内多种信号转导通路.另外,非基因组作用与基因组作用之间还存在整合和交互对话的途径.     

糖皮质激素非基因组效应的研究

在过去的几十年间,人们认为糖皮质激素（glucocorticoid,GC）仅仅是通过改变基因的表达来发挥其生理作用,这个过程需要几个小时来完成。然而,近年来越来越多的证据表明GC对激素分泌、神经元兴奋性、机体行为及细胞形态、糖类代谢等具备快速效应,这些过程往往在数秒钟或者分种内完成,这种作用机制被称为GC的非基因组作用机制。GC的非基因组作用主要可能通过两种不同的机制起作用：（1）通过细胞膜上或者细胞质内结构未知的糖皮质激素受体（glucocorticoid Recptor,GR）来发挥非基因组作用,即为特异性非基因组效应,（2）GC主要通过改变细胞膜理化作用来发挥效应。也称为非特异性非基因组效应（non-specific nongenomic effects,NSNE）。本文通过阐述近年来GC的非基因组的作用的最新研究进展并且讨论了这些非基因组作用临床治疗过程中的联系。对糖皮质激素基因组和非基因组作用机制的深入了解有助于指导我们在临床合理用药并减少其副作用。     

糖皮质激素的非基因组作用

糖皮质激素是由肾上腺皮质分泌的类固醇激素,是调节物质代谢和应激反应的重要激素,同时具有强大的抗炎和免疫抑制的特性。糖皮质激素除通过基因组机制起作用外,还通过非基因组机制影响激素的分泌、神经元兴奋性、行为、细胞形态、糖代谢等各种生命活动。     

糖皮质激素及其受体在细胞数量稳态调节方面的作用及机制

糖皮质激素（GC）能够抑制体内多种细胞的增殖,近年来还发现GC对多种凋亡诱导因子导致的细胞凋亡具有拮抗作用。我们因此提出GC可能通过上述作用来稳持细胞数量的稳定,这种对细胞数量的稳态调节可能是GC对机体稳态调节的一个重要方面。本文结合我们自身的工作综述了糖皮质激素／受体抑制细胞增殖和抗凋亡的作用,并简述了其作用机制的研究进展。这方面的研究有助于充分了解GC的生理和药理作用以及副作用产生的机制,有助于临床合理用药。     

糖皮质激素对血压的调节作用及其机制

糖皮质激素能够通过其允许作用增强血管平滑肌对儿茶酚胺的敏感性,进而提高血管的张力和维持血压。近年来越来越多的证据表明,自发性高血压与糖皮质激素的异常分泌有关。糖皮质激素可以通过心脏、血管内皮细胞、血管平滑肌等不同部位的作用而调节血压。本文就糖皮质激素对血压的调节及其可能的机制作一综述。     

类固醇激素非基因组作用的机制及意义

现已证明各种类型的类固醇激素均能通过非基因组作用快速改变生理过程。不同的激素,或同一激素对不同的细胞,其非基因组作用的机制各不相同,多种多样,并且不时有新的机制诞生。本文将迄今为止类固醇激素快速非基因组作用的可能机制作一综述,并初步阐述其可能的意义。     

雌激素非基因组效应及其对雌性生殖功能影响的研究进展

雌激素属于类固醇激素,其对靶细胞的作用除了由胞内受体介导的基因组效应外,还可通过作用于细胞膜上的受体,快速激活膜上和胞内相关信号分子,通过多种跨膜信号转导的方式,产生非基因组效应。与雌激素非基因组效应相关的信号途径主要有PLC-Ca~(2+),ERK/MAPK,cAMP-PKA,PI3K-AKT-NOS等,进而引起后续生物学效应。雌激素通过非基因组机制对全身各器官系统,如生殖系统、神经系统、心血管系统和骨组织等的生理及病理过程都具有广泛而重要的调节作用。本文主要对雌激素非基因组效应的作用特点,主要信号途径和生理意义,以及其对雌性生殖系统功能的影响进行综述。     

核因子κB与糖皮质激素受体途径的拮抗作用

免疫反应是机体重要的生理过程,在免疫反应的分子调控中有两个重要的调节节子：核因子－κB（NF－κB）和糖皮质激素受体（GR）。NF－κB是免疫反应的激活子,而GR是免疫反应的抑制子,两者互为生理拮抗剂。NF－κB与GR相互拮抗机制可能有三：NF－κB和GR直接作用;NF－κB与GR竞争性地与有限的转录辅因子相互作用;GCs上调IκBα基因的表达。在功能上,NF－κB与GR也是有相互拮抗。NF－κB与GR拮抗作用的生理意义主要表现在两方面：NF－κB与GR的拮抗作用是机体保持内环境稳定的基本调节机制之一;NF－κB与GR的拮抗作用是GCs可能的抗炎机制。     

糖皮质激素对大鼠下丘脑薄片室旁核神经元放电的影响

自60年代以来,许多整体电生理实验结果表明,糖皮质激素能对下丘脑、中脑、海马和脊髓等部位的神经元电活动产生快速而且短暂的影响。这类反应的潜伏期只有数秒到数分钟,因此糖皮质激素不可能通过基因机制起作用,它可能还存在着其他的作用方式。目前已有生化实验的资料证实,两栖类和哺乳类某些细胞的质膜上存在糖皮质激素的膜结合位点。本室以往的研究结果亦提示在豚鼠腹腔神经     

雌激素的非基因组途径在哺乳动物雌性生殖过程中的作用机制

雌激素的非基因组调节模式在雌性生殖系统中广泛存在．雌激素通过基因组、非基因组及两种调节模式的整合在不同组织中行使多种生理功能．卵巢中雌激素能通过非基因组效应对卵细胞起到保护作用．子宫中雌激素对多种基因的表达都是通过非基因组模式．对雌激素非基因组效应的研究将有利于进一步了解雌激素的作用机制．     

糖皮质激素快速抑制牛蛙椎旁神经节B细胞快兴奋性突触后电位

用单个方波电刺激牛蛙离体椎旁经节前纤维,细胞内记录节后Ｂ细胞快兴奋性突后电位,观察糖皮质激素对Ｂ细胞ｆ－ＥＰＳＰ的快速抑制作用。结果发现,ＧＣ灌注３ｍｉｎ,。Ｂ细胞ｆ－ＥＰＳＰ的幅值减小,撤除ＧＣ后,ＥＰＳＰ的幅值恢复到对照水平。作用具有剂量信赖性。     

Nongenomic actions of aldosterone: physiological or pathophysiological role?

The actions of aldosterone are usually divided into persistent genomic mediated by the classical mineralocorticoid receptor versus acute nongenomic actions. Rapid, nongenomic effects of aldosterone have been shown in a variety of tissues, although the physiological relevance of these nongenomic actions remains to be established. There is now growing evidence that both the nongenomic and genomic actions of aldosterone, are mediated via the same classical mineralocorticoid receptor, and there is cross talk between the nongenomic and classical actions of steroid hormones. Activation of tissue-specific, second messenger pathways may contribute to integration of nongenomic and classical actions of aldosterone. Further studies are required to determine the physiological or pathophysiological role of these nongenomic actions of aldosterone and whether they might amplify pathophysiological effects of aldosterone.     

EF domains are sufficient for nongenomic mineralocorticoid receptor actions

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is important for salt homeostasis and reno-cardiovascular pathophysiology. Signaling mechanisms include, besides classical genomic pathways, nongenomic pathways with putative pathophysiological relevance involving the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2. We determined the MR domains required for nongenomic signaling and their potential to elicit pathophysiological effects in cultured cells under defined conditions. The expression of full-length human MR or truncated MR consisting of the domains CDEF (MR CDEF), DEF (MR DEF), or EF (MR EF) renders cells responsive for the MR ligand aldosterone with respect to nongenomic ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas only full-length MR and MR CDEF conferred genomic responsiveness. ERK1/2 phosphorylation depends on the EGF receptor and cSRC kinase. MR EF expression is sufficient to evoke the aldosterone-induced increase of collagen III levels, similar to full-length MR expression. Our data suggest that nongenomic MR signaling is mediated by the EF domains and present the first proof of principle showing that nongenomic signaling can be sufficient for some pathophysiological effects. The minimum amino acid motif required for nongenomic MR signaling and its importance in various effects have yet to be determined.     

Intermolecular relations between the glucocorticoid receptor, ZAP-70 kinase, and Hsp-90

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) participates in both genomic and non-genomic glucocorticoid hormone (GC) actions by interacting with other cytoplasmic signalling proteins. Previously, we have shown that high dose Dexamethasone (DX) treatment of Jurkat cells causes tyrosine phosphorylation of ZAP-70 within 5 min in a GR-dependent manner. By using co-immunoprecipitation and confocal microscopy, here we demonstrate that the liganded GR physically associates with ZAP-70, in addition to its phosphorylation changes. The association of the ligand-bound GR and ZAP-70 was also observed in HeLa cells transfected with ZAP-70, suggesting that this co-clustering is independent of lymphocyte specific factors. Furthermore, the ZAP-70 was found to also co-precipitate with Hsp-90 chaperone both in Jurkat and transgenic HeLa cells, independent of the presence of DX. These findings raise the possibility that ZAP-70 may serve as an important link between GC and TcR-induced signaling, thereby transmitting non-genomic GC action in T-cells.     

Novel insights into mechanisms of glucocorticoid action and the development of new glucocorticoid receptor ligands

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant agents. Unfortunately, they also produce serious side effects that limit their usage. This discrepancy is the driving force for the intensive search for novel GC receptor ligands with a better benefit-risk ratio as compared to conventional GCs. A better understanding of the molecular mode of GC action might result in the identification of novel drug targets. Genomic GC effects are mediated by transrepression or transactivation, the latter being largely responsible for GC side effects. We here discuss novel GC receptor ligands, such as selective glucocorticoid receptor agonists (SEGRAs), which might optimize genomic GC effects as they preferentially induce transrepression with little or no transactivating activity. In addition to genomic GC effects, GCs also produce rapid genomic-independent activities, termed nongenomic, and we here review the possible implications of a recently reported mechanism underlying nongenomic GC-induced immunosuppression in T cells. It was shown that the synthetic GC dexamethasone targets membrane-bound GC receptors leading to impaired T cell receptor signaling. As a consequence, membrane-linked GC receptors might be a potential candidate target for GC therapy. The ultimate goal is to convert these molecular insights into new GC receptor modulators with an improved therapeutic index.     

NADPH oxidase-mediated Rac1 GTP activity is necessary for nongenomic actions of the mineralocorticoid receptor in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus

Mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) in the central nervous system play important roles in spatial memory, fear memory, salt sensitivity, and hypertension. Corticosterone binds to MRs to induce presynaptic vesicle release and postsynaptic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor aggregation, which are necessary for induction of long-term potentiation under psychological stress. On the other hand, cognitive dysfunction is an important problem clinically in patients with hypertension, diabetes, and cerebral infarction, and all of these conditions are associated with an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Oxidative stress has been shown to modify the genomic actions of MRs in the peripheral organs; however, there have been no reports until now about the relation between the nongenomic actions of MRs and ROS in the central nervous system. In this study, we investigated the relationship between ROS and the nongenomic actions of MR. We examined the nongenomic actions of MR by measuring the slope of the field excitatory postsynaptic potentials and found that ROS induced an additive increase of these potentials, which was accompanied by Rac1 GTP activation and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. An NADPH oxidase inhibitor, apocynin, blocked the nongenomic actions of MRs. A Rac1 inhibitor, NSC23766, was also found to block synaptic enhancement and ERK1/2 phosphorylation induced by NADPH and corticosterone. We concluded that NADPH oxidase activity and Rac1 GTP activity are indispensable for the nongenomic actions of MRs and that Rac1 GTP activation induces ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the brain.     

Cooperative nongenomic and genomic actions on thyroid hormone mediated-modulation of T cell proliferation involve up-regulation of thyroid hormone receptor and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression

Thyroid hormones (THs) exert a broad range of actions on development, growth, and cell differentiation by both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms. THs regulate lymphocyte function, but the participation of nongenomic actions is still unknown. Here the contribution of both genomic and nongenomic effects on TH-induced division of T cells was studied by using free and noncell permeable THs coupled to agarose (TH-ag). THs-ag led to cell division, but to a lesser extent than free hormones. THs induced nongenomically the rapid translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) ζ isoform to cell membranes, extracellular-signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) phosphorylation and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. The signaling cascade include sphingomyelinases acting up-stream the activation of PKCζ isoform, while ERK and NF-κB are activated downstream this PKC isoenzyme. Both free and THs-ag increased the protein and mRNA levels of TH nuclear receptor TRα1, while only free hormones incremented the inducible NOS gene and protein levels as well as a calcium independent NOS activity. Both effects were blunted by PKCζ inhibition. These results indicate that THs, by triggering a nongenomic signaling cascade that involves Smases-mediated activation of PKCζ, lead to ERK 1/2 and NF-κB activation and to the genomic increase of TRs and the inducible nitric oxide synthase protein and mRNA levels, improving T lymphocyte proliferation. These finding not only contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms involved in TH modulation of lymphocyte physiology, but would also point out for the first time the interplay between genomic and nongenomic TH actions in T cells.