黄蜻幼虫肠道真菌QTYC-51的鉴定及其除草活性成分

【目的】鉴定黄蜻幼虫肠道中具有除草活性的真菌,并分析其除草活性成分。【方法】通过形态学观察和分子生物学5.8S r DNA-ITS序列分析,明确菌株QTYC-51的分类地位。结合培养皿生物分析法测定菌株发酵液和单体化合物的除草活性,采用色谱方法从该菌乙酸乙酯粗提物中分离活性成分,并利用质谱和核磁共振谱鉴定活性物质。【结果】菌株QTYC-51被鉴定为拟盾壳霉属菌(Paraconiothyrium sp.),其发酵液对稗草和反枝苋幼根生长有较好的抑制作用,抑制率分别为76.9%和56.5%。从QTYC-51发酵产物中分离到5个单体化合物,分别为1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone,1-hydroxy-10-methoxy-dibenz[b,e]oxepin-6,11-dione,hydroxyvertixanthone,globosuxanthone和1,3,6,8-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone。在供试浓度为100μg/m L时,化合物globosuxanthone对稗草和反枝苋幼根生长有明显的抑制作用,抑制率分别为94.1%和79.0%,与阳性对照2,4-二氯苯氧乙酸效果相当;化合物1-hydroxy-10-methoxy-dibenz[b,e]oxepin-6,11-dione具有较好的除草活性,对稗草和反枝苋幼根的生长抑制率分别为50.3%和58.6%。【结论】菌株QTYC-51具有开发为微生物源除草剂的潜能。     

黄蜻幼虫肠道菌QTYC01除草活性代谢产物的分离和鉴定

【目的】从黄蜻幼虫肠道中分离出具有除草活性的真菌,并在其代谢产物中寻找具有除草活性的先导化合物。【方法】采用涂布平板法对黄蜻幼虫肠道共生真菌进行分离,通过形态学观察和5.8S r RNA序列分析初步确定目标菌株QTYC01的分类地位。利用离体的方法测定菌株发酵液及其乙酸乙酯提取物的除草活性以及粗提物对常见农作物的安全性;利用盆栽方法测定发酵液对稗草幼苗的活性。运用重结晶的方法对发酵产物进行分离、纯化,利用质谱和核磁共振谱分析鉴定出化合物的结构。【结果】菌株QTYC01被鉴定为Curvularia crepinii。离体活性测试发现QTYC01发酵液可显著抑制稗草和反枝苋幼根的生长,其抑制率分别可达95.0%和90.1%,并可使经喷施发酵液的稗草幼苗的受害率达到71.1%。发酵液的乙酸乙酯提取物对稗草和反枝苋幼根具有很好的抑制效果,在100μg/m L的浓度条件下,粗提物对稗草和反枝苋的抑制活性分别为56.8%和71.2%,且在该浓度条件下对一些常见农作物具有很好的安全性,其抑制率均低于32.6%。进一步从其乙酸乙酯提取物中分离得到化合物(5Z)-7-oxozeaenol,活性测试表明化合物具有较好的抑制反枝苋活性,其IC_(50)为4.8μg/m L。【结论】菌株QTYC01具有开发为新型微生物除草剂的潜力。     

红海榄根际土壤来源的泡盛曲霉（Aspergillus awamori）F12及其代谢产物的抗菌活性分析

摘要：【目的】鉴定一株来自于红海榄根际土壤并具有分泌抑菌活性代谢产物的真菌菌株F12,并从其发酵液乙酸乙酯浸膏中分离抑菌活性成分。【方法】通过形态学观察以及ITS序列分析方法对菌株F12进行鉴定;利用色谱技术分离发酵液乙酸乙酯浸膏中的次生代谢产物,根据化合物的质谱、氢谱、碳谱以及理化性质确定其结构,并检测它们对细菌生长的抑制作用。【结果】菌株F12被鉴定为Aspergillus awamori strain F12;从其发酵液乙酸乙酯浸膏中分离到3种化合物：1,4-二甲氧基苯（1）、大黄素（2）和3,6-二苯甲基哌嗪-2,5-二酮（3）,其中化合物1属于在本属真菌中首次报道。化合物2对金黄色葡萄球菌和枯草芽孢杆菌的生长具有明显的抑制作用,最低抑菌浓度（MIC）分别为16ng/L和32ng/L,化合物1和3对上述菌株的生长无明显的抑制活性。【结论】首次发现从红海榄根际土壤中分离到的泡盛曲霉（Aspergillus awamori）菌株F12具有合成1,4-二甲氧基苯和大黄素的能力,其中后者对微生物的生长具有明显的抑制作用。     

马蜂肠道菌抑制反枝苋的活性筛选及菌株MF06的活性代谢产物

摘要:【目的】研究马蜂肠道真菌对反枝苋的抑制活性,为开发微生物源除草剂奠定基础。【方法】通过测试11种肠道真菌发酵液对反枝苋根生长的抑制效果筛选出活性菌株MF06。通过形态学观察和分子生物学鉴定确定MF06的分类地位。通过硅胶柱层析法、薄层层析法、葡聚糖凝胶柱层析法对乙酸乙酯粗提物进行分离、纯化,得到代谢产物1,研究代谢产物1对反枝苋根生长的抑制作用。利用核磁共振谱和质谱确定代谢产物1的化学结构。【结果】经形态学观察和ITS序列分析确定MF06菌株为尖孢镰刀菌(Fusarium oxysporum)。当供试质量浓度为100 μg/mL时,该菌株发酵液的乙酸乙酯提取物对反枝苋根生长的抑制率大于68%。从乙酸乙酯粗提物中分离得到代谢产物1,经过结构鉴定为镰刀菌酸与9,10-脱氢镰刀菌酸以1:1比例形成的混合物。活性测试表明代谢产物1对反枝苋根生长具有很强的抑制作用,抑制活性的IC50值为(0.51±0.18)μg/mL,与阳性对照药2,4-二氯苯氧乙酸的活性［IC50值为(0.30±0.14)μg/mL］相当。【结论】MF06菌株具有开发为微生物源除草剂的潜力。     

贝莱斯芽孢杆菌L-1对梨灰霉和青霉病菌的抑制作用评价及全基因组分析

【目的】明确贝莱斯芽孢杆菌(Bacillus velezensis)L-1对梨灰霉和青霉病菌的抑制作用,明确菌株L-1无菌发酵液拮抗活性的稳定性及可能的拮抗机制。【方法】通过离体测定、活体测定和病原菌菌丝形态观察,评价菌株L-1对梨灰霉和青霉病菌的拮抗活性。以梨灰霉病菌为供试病原菌,利用牛津杯法测定菌株L-1无菌发酵液拮抗活性的稳定性。利用Pacbio RSII三代测序技术测定L-1的全基因序列,将全基因序列与基因蛋白质序列数据库进行BLAST比对分析,预测菌株L-1可能产生的次生代谢产物及潜在的作用机制。【结果】菌株L-1对梨灰霉和青霉病菌的活体抑制率分别为92.88%和77.47%,能引起病原菌菌丝膨大、畸形。菌株L-1在含10%Na Cl的培养液中仍能正常生长,其无菌发酵液耐高温、酸、碱、紫外照射和蛋白酶降解,对病原菌具有稳定的拮抗活性。全基因序列分析结果显示菌株L-1有112个基因参与了多种碳源的代谢,可以利用多种碳源进行生长;含有参与亚精胺、海藻糖等与菌株抗逆性相关化合物合成的基因;次生代谢产物预测结果显示:L-1含有合成surfactin、fengycin、bacillibactin、bacillaene、macolactin、difficidin、bacilysin等多种肽聚糖和聚酮糖类抗性化合物的基因簇,以及能够降解病原菌细胞壁的β-1,3-葡聚糖酶和几丁质酶相关的基因;此外菌株L-1含有生成乙偶姻等能够诱导植物抗性的基因。【结论】菌株L-1能有效拮抗多种梨果采后病害,抗逆性强,拮抗活性稳定,预测菌株L-1能够通过产生多种拮抗活性化合物和细胞壁水解酶类以及诱导植物抗性实现防病效果,具有很大的应用潜力。     

植物病原真菌抑制杂草的活性筛选及菌株CY-H的活性代谢产物

【目的】分离并鉴定具有较好除草活性的植物病原真菌菌株,进一步分离活性化合物,为开发新型生物源除草剂奠定一定的基础。【方法】采用固体培养基接种法分离纯化植物病原真菌,通过形态学特征观察和5.8S rDNA测序鉴定目标菌株;在活性筛选追踪下,对活性组分进行追踪分离及纯化,经波谱分析确定活性单体化合物结构;采用培养皿生物分析法测定活性单体化合物的除草活性及对常见作物的安全性。【结果】茶叶致病菌CY-H具有较好的除草活性,其发酵液对稗草和反枝苋根的抑制率分别为94.6%和77.3%。CY-H被鉴定为间座壳属菌(Diaporthe sp.)。从CY-H菌中分离得到单体化合物CY1被鉴定为cytosporaphenones C。在供试浓度为100μg/mL时,CY1具有较好的抑制反枝苋根的活性,抑制率为57.1%,且其对小麦和油菜的安全性较好,抑制率均在20%左右。【结论】茶叶致病菌CY-H具有开发成微生物源除草剂的潜力。     

拮抗辣椒疫霉菌海洋细菌菌株SH-27的筛选鉴定及其防病促生作用

【背景】由辣椒疫霉引起的辣椒疫病是全球辣椒生产中一种毁灭性的病害。近年来生物防治因其具有对环境友好、对人畜安全的特性而倍受关注。【目的】筛选对辣椒具有防病促生作用的海洋细菌菌株SH-27并鉴定其分类地位。【方法】采用稀释分离法和平板对峙法筛选拮抗辣椒疫霉菌的海洋细菌菌株,以发酵液灌根法测定海洋细菌SH-27菌株对辣椒盆栽的防病促生作用;通过形态特征、生理生化测试及多基因序列分析对海洋细菌SH-27菌株进行鉴定。【结果】从分离的142株海洋细菌中筛选获得11株对辣椒疫霉菌具有较强抑制作用的细菌菌株,其中以来自珊瑚的SH-27菌株的抑菌作用最强、抑菌谱广;室内盆栽试验结果表明,SH-27菌株发酵液处理后的辣椒植株根长、株高、茎粗、鲜重、干重均显著高于对照处理。SH-27菌株发酵液灌根处理后,对辣椒疫病4、6和9 d的防效分别为70.81%、66.55%和48.20%。经形态特征、生理生化测试及16S rRNA、gyrA基因序列分析,鉴定SH-27菌株为解淀粉芽孢杆菌(Bacillus amyloliquefaciens)。【结论】海洋细菌SH-27菌株对辣椒具有较好的防病促生效果,具有开发为微生物农药及菌肥的潜力。     

多噬伯克霍尔德氏菌WS-FJ9对林木病原菌物的拮抗作用及代谢产物的稳定性

【背景】伯克霍尔德氏菌(Burkholderia)是一类重要的植物根际促生细菌,许多菌株具有抑制植物病原菌生长和促进植物生长等功能。【目的】探究高效解磷促生细菌多噬伯克霍尔德氏菌(B. multivorans) WS-FJ9对不同林木病原菌物的抑菌作用。【方法】采用平板对峙法检测菌株WS-FJ9对5株林木病原真菌和卵菌的抑制效果;基于比色法检测经菌株WS-FJ9处理后病原菌菌丝细胞内含物的变化;使用antiSMASH 5.0在线预测网站对其次生代谢物质进行预测;通过菌丝生长抑制速率法对其无菌发酵滤液的抑菌活性和稳定性进行研究。【结果】菌株WS-FJ9对5种林木病原菌均具有不同程度的抑制作用,其中菌悬液对樟疫霉(Phytophthora cinnamomi)的抑制作用最好,抑菌带宽度为14.82±0.20mm,无菌发酵滤液对真菌拟茎点霉(Phomopsismacrospore)和松杉球壳孢(Sphaeropsis sapinea)的抑制效果显著,抑菌率分别为62.22%和62.78%;经无菌发酵滤液处理后的病原菌菌丝内的丙二醛含量增高,还原糖和可溶性蛋白含量显著降低。WS-FJ9菌株的基因组中含27个不同的次级代谢产物编码基因簇,其中包含编码嗜铁素、细菌素和抗生素等抑菌基因簇;该菌株发酵液在高温、紫外照射和强酸强碱环境条件下及经蛋白酶处理后,其抑菌活性均未受到影响。【结论】多噬伯克霍尔德氏菌WS-FJ9对林木病原菌物具有很好的生防潜力。     

陕北野生甘草内生菌的分离及抑菌活性筛选

采用组织块分离法从陕北野生甘草根中分离出21株内生菌,其中细菌12株,真菌6株,放线菌3株.为明确内生菌代谢产物的抑菌活性,采用抑制菌丝生长速率法和组织测定法系统测定了其发酵液对植物病原真菌的抑制作用.结果表明,在离体条件下,甘草内生菌发酵液对供试的7种植物病原菌菌丝生长均有一定的抑制作用,其中Z4和F1菌株的发酵液对供试病原菌菌丝生长的抑制作用较强,特别是对苹果干腐病菌和烟草赤星病菌的抑制作用最强,抑制率分别可达92.36%、90.16%和91.20%、90.43%,EC50分别仅为54.38、90.31和57.50、89.58 mg·L-1;组织法测定中,发酵液稀释10倍后,Z4和F1菌株对苹果干腐病的保护作用分别为75.39%和73.13%,治疗效果分别为67.61%和60.75%.     

广藿香内生真菌多样性及其对青枯菌的拮抗活性

【目的】对广藿香各部位内生真菌的类群结构及多样性进行系统分析,筛选出对青枯菌具拮抗活性的菌株。【方法】采用组织块分离法从广藿香健康植株的根、茎、叶中分离内生真菌,结合形态学和基于ITS-r DNA序列分析鉴定方法分析广藿香内生真菌的类群结构及多样性,并利用双层平板拮抗法筛选对青枯菌具有抑制活性的菌株。【结果】从广藿香中共分离获得313株内生真菌,隶属于30个属,其中链格孢属(占28.75%)、拟茎点霉属(占23.00%)和炭疽菌属(11.82%)为优势类群,此外还分离到炭皮菌属、弯孢聚壳属、Gibellulopsis、新萨托菌属、葡萄座腔菌属、篮状菌属等较为少见的类群。茎、叶内生真菌的定殖率和分离率明显高于根,而根部多样性指数为2.64,要高于茎(2.00)和叶(1.97);广藿香茎与叶、根与茎、根与叶之间的内生真菌相似性指数分别为0.35、0.20、0.19,均小于0.5,显示各部位之间的内生真菌组成不相似程度高。从313株广藿香内生真菌中通过拮抗实验筛选到16株对青枯菌有拮抗活性的菌株,其中GHXR07、GHXR27和GHXR29的拮抗活性尤为显著,分别被鉴定为Talaromyces sp.、Myrothecium roridum Tode和Talaromyces wortmannii(Kl?cker)Benjamin。【结论】广藿香内生真菌具有丰富的物种多样性且其类群分布具有一定的组织特异性,其中部分菌株对青枯菌具有明显的拮抗活性。     

Y-chromosome Data and Tribal Affiliations of Allenopithecus and Miopithecus

The phylogeny of Old World monkeys has remained unresolved in part because of a lack of resolution in the Cercopithecinae. Competing morphological hypotheses have had Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) and the talapoins (Miopithecus spp.) as basal branches of either the tribe Cercopithecini or the tribe Papionini. Previous molecular analyses have not adequately addressed the issue. To better understand the evolutionary history of these primates, we sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis 3.1 kb of 2 loci (TSPY and SRY) from the non-recombining portion of the Y-chromosome. Individuals from the genera Allenopithecus, Miopithecus, Erythrocebus, Chlorocebus, and Cercopithecus were surveyed and their sequences compared with those previously published for the Papionini and Colobinae. The results suggest Allenopithecus and Miopithecus are more closely related to the Cercopithecini than Papionini. Our data also support the hypothesis that within the Cercopithecini, Erythrocebus and Chlorocebus share a close evolutionary relationship, distinct from the other members of the tribe.     

Nystatin and killer toxin sensitivity of free and immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae

The inhibitory effect of nystatin and killer toxin on the growth of free and covalently-immobilizedSaccharomyces cerevisiae cells was studied. The resistance of immobilized cells to both agents was accompanied by increased amounts of phospholipids and sterols. The possible relationship between these changes in the membrane composition and the transduction of a signal across the cytoplasmic membrane is discussed.     

The hernandez and fernandez genes of Drosophila specify eye and antenna

The formation of different structures in Drosophila depends on the combined activities of selector genes and signaling pathways. For instance, the antenna requires the selector gene homothorax, which distinguishes between the leg and the antenna and can specify distal antenna if expressed ectopically. Similarly, the eye is formed by a group of "eye-specifying" genes, among them eyeless, which can direct eye development ectopically. We report here the characterization of the hernandez and fernandez genes, expressed in the antennal and eye primordia of the eye-antenna imaginal disc. The predicted proteins encoded by these two genes have 27% common amino acids and include a Pipsqueak domain. Reduced expression of either hernandez or fernandez mildly affects antenna and eye development, while the inactivation of both genes partially transforms distal antenna into leg. Ectopic expression of either of the two genes results in two different phenotypes: it can form distal antenna, activating genes like homothorax, spineless, and spalt, and it can promote eye development and activates eyeless. Reciprocally, eyeless can induce hernandez and fernandez expression, and homothorax and spineless can activate both hernandez and fernandez when ectopically expressed. The formation of eye by these genes seems to require Notch signaling, since the induction of ectopic eyes and the activation of eyeless by the hernandez gene are suppressed when the Notch function is compromised. Our results show that the hernandez and fernandez genes are required for antennal and eye development and are also able to specify eye or antenna ectopically.     

Molecular identification and differentiation of Brevibacterium species and strains

Amplified ribosomal DNA restriction enzyme analysis (ARDRA), pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and ribotyping were used to differentiate among 24 strains of Brevibacterium linens, Brevibacterium casei and Brevibacterium epidermidis obtained from type culture collections or isolated from various smear ripened cheeses. ARDRA was applied to the 16S rDNA. B. linens was shown to be a quite heterogenic group with 2 to at least 4 copies of rrn operons per strain with aberrant nucleotide sequences. AccI gave genus specific restriction patterns and was used to separate Brevibacterium from Corynebacterium species. The expected species specificity of TaqI applied to B. linens type culture strains, but not to all strains isolated from cheese. By AvaI restriction, B. casei and B. linens were differentiated from B. epidermidis and the orange pigmented Arthrobacter casei, a new species of coryneform bacteria; by XmnI restriction, B. linens and B. epidermidis were differentiated from B. casei. One of 4 B. linens genotypes could not be distinguished from B. casei by this method. Here, the typical orange B. linens pigments were used for classification, which was confirmed by partial sequencing of the 16S rDNA.     

Evaluation of antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial activities of the resin glycosides and the other metabolites of Scrophularia cryptophila

Resin glycosides are secondary metabolites exclusive to the convolvulaceous plants. In this study, crypthophilic acids A–C (1–3), the first resin glycosides occurring in another family (Scrophulariaceae), and the other constituents of Scrophularia cryptophila were examined for in vitro antiprotozoal and antimycobacterial potentials. Except for crypthophilic acid B (2), all tested compounds exhibited growth-inhibitory effect against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, with l-tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7) being the most potent ones (IC₅₀'s 4.1 and 9.7 μg/ml). In contrast, the activity towards Trypanosoma cruzi was poor, and only crypthophilic acid C (3), 6 and 7 were trypanocidal at concentrations above 40 μg/ml. With the exception of 2 and 6, all compounds were active against Leishmania donovani. Harpagide (4) and 3 emerged as the best leishmanicidal agents (IC₅₀'s 2.0 and 5.8 μg/ml). Only compounds 3, 6 and 7 showed antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum with IC₅₀ values of 4.2, 16.6 and 22.4 μg/ml. Overall the best and broadest spectrum activity was presented by compounds 3 and 7, as they inhibited all four parasitic protozoa. None of the isolates had significant activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MICs >100 μg/ml) or were toxic towards mammalian (L6) cells. This is the first report of antiprotozoal activity for natural resin glycosides, as well as for harpagide (4), acetylharpagide (5), tryptophan (6) and buddlejasaponin III (7).     

Theoretical Study of Antagonists and Inhibitors of Mammalian Adenosine Deaminase: I. Adenosine and Its Aza- and Deazaanalogues

Aza- and deazaanalogues of adenosine, including their 1-protonated forms (except for that of 1-deazaadenosine), were studied by computer computation to find a relationship between their molecular structures and substrate properties for the mammalian adenosine deaminase. The atomic charge distribution and maps of the electrostatic potential around their van der Waals molecular surface were calculated for these compounds using the ab initio STO-3G method. The conformational studies are carried out by the MM⁺ method of molecular mechanics. The mechanism that determines the substrate selectivity of mammalian adenosine deaminase is discussed.     

Pericarp structure and phylogeny of theLamiaceae-Verbenaceae-complex

Pericarp structure was investigated in 158 species of the familiesLamiaceae andVerbenaceae. Data from 221 out of 262 genera ofLamiaceae s.l. and a few ofVerbenaceae s.str. were collected in a table. A cladistic analysis was performed on the basis of pericarp characters only. The abandonment of subfam.Pogostemonoideae as a taxonomic unit is considered. Examples of groups given additional support by similarities in pericarp characters are: (1) the gynobasic-styled labiates (subfamiliesPogostemonoideae, Lamioideae, Nepetoideae); (2) aLamioideae-Pogostemonoideae-group; (3)Nepetoideae; (4) aWestringia-Hemigenia-Hemiandra-Microcorys group (in subfam.Chloranthoideae); (5) aLepechinia-Chaunostoma-group (inNepetoideae); (6) aPrunella-Cleonia-group (inNepetoideae).     

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen ratio on the growth and sporulation of several biocontrol fungi

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio on six biocontrol fungal strains are reported in this paper. All fungal strains had extensive growth on the media supplemented with 6–12 g l⁻¹ carbon and C:N ratios from 10:1 to 80:1, and differed in nutrient requirements for sporulation. Except for the two strains of Paecilomyces lilacinus, all selected fungi attained the highest spore yields at a C:N ratio of 160:1 when the carbon concentration was 12 g l⁻¹ for Metarhizium anisopliae SQZ-1-21, 6 g l⁻¹ for M. anisopliae RS-4-1 and Trichoderma viride TV-1, and 8 g l⁻¹ for Lecanicillium lecanii CA-1-G. The optimal conditions for P. lilacinus sporulation were 8 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 10:1 for M-14 and 12 g l⁻¹ carbon with a C:N ratio of 20:1 for IPC-P, respectively. The results indicated that the influence of carbon concentration and C:N ratio on fungal growth and sporulation is strain dependent; therefore, consideration for the complexity of nutrient requirements is essential for improving yields of fungal biocontrol agents.     

Origin and development of Tool-making behavior in Africa and Asia

Around two-and-a-half million years ago, some hominid populations in Africa began to modify stones and bones in a manner that can be recognized by prehistorians as artifacts, and, by definition, produced the earliest identifiable archaeological record. It is likely that earlier hominid groups also may have had relatively rich tool-using behavioral repertoires similar to that seen in modern chimpanzees (McGrew, 1992), such tools may have been made of perishable materials or minimally modified and thus difficult to identify. This review will focus on the earliest archaeological traces and the spread of hominids out of Africa and into Eurasia.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of morel fruiting

The biotic and abiotic factors conditioning morel fruit body production are incompletely known. We examined spatial and temporal patterns of Morchella esculenta fruiting over five years in a wooded site in Missouri, USA. Fruiting onset was inversely correlated with spring air and soil temperatures, whereas abundance was positively correlated with rain events (>10 mm) during the 30 d preceding fruiting. The two years with the greatest fruiting had the shortest fruiting seasons (6–7 d). Fruiting season length was positively correlated with soil warming, suggesting that a narrow range of optimum soil temperatures favour the explosive production of fruit bodies. All woody stems of at least 1 cm diam were mapped and stem diameter and crown condition were noted. Morel fruit bodies were significantly closer to stems of Carya spp., Tilia americana and Ulmus americana than predicted by the frequencies of these woody species or their contribution to the total basal area on the site. Although intra-annual clustering of fruit bodies was often observed, inter-annual clustering was not. The spatial pattern of M. esculenta fruiting appears to be associated with vegetation pattern, whereas the onset and abundance of fruiting are determined by the interaction of spring temperatures with availability of supporting precipitation.