Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: Nutritive values of selected species

Wild edible plants form an important constituent of traditional diets in the Himalaya. In the Sikkim Himalaya a total of 190 species have been screened as edible species out of which nearly 47 species come to the market. The present paper deals with nutritive values of 27 most commonly consumed wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya. Of 27 plant species that were analyzed for their nutritive values, 22 were edible for their fruits and five for leaves/shoots. Among different plant parts, generally higher nutrient concentration was recorded for leaves, followed by new shoots and fruits. For different species the crude fiber content ranged between 2.15–39.90%, and the total soluble salts between 4.66–21.00%, and the vitamin C content from 6–286 mg/100 g. The fat content was determined high in the fruits ofCastanopsis hystrix, Machilus edulis, andCinnamomum species, while the protein content was highest inHippophae rhamnoides, Cucumis melo, andEleagnus latifolia. The total carbohydrate content ranged from 32–88% in the fruits of various wild edibles, the reducing sugar from 1.25–12.42%, total sugar from 2.10–25.09%, the lignin content varied from 9.05–39.51%, the hemicellulose between 25.63–55.71% and cellulose content varied from 9.57–33.19% in different species. Among the various macronutrients estimated in the plant samples of different wild edible species, nitrogen was present in highest quantity, followed by potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sodium. Micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and copper contents were analyzed in different plant parts of various wild edible species. The iron content was higher in leaves and new shoots. The nutritive values of certain wild edible species determined in this study are comparable with various commercial fruits. It is suggested that a few wild edible species need to be grown for commercial cultivation and adopted in the traditional agroforestry systems, which will lead to reduced pressure on them in natural forest stands as well as producing economic benefits for poor farmers.     

Dietary use of wild plant resources in the Sikkim Himalaya, India

The edible wild plants are greatly valued throughout the Himalayan region and serve as an important source of food for indigenous communities. This paper describes the botanical richness, elevational distribution and dietary use of the edible wild plant resources from the Sikkim Himalaya (Eastern Himalaya), many with promising potential. A total of 190 wild plant species have been screened from the Sikkim Himalaya, this derived from 143 genera and 78 families and accounting for nearly 15% of total edible wild plants resources of India. Of the total, 65% were edible for their fruits, 22% for leaves/shoots, 7% for flowers and 3% for roots/ rhizomes. Nearly 91 wild edible species were recorded from low-hills, 70 from mid-hills and 28 species from high-hill areas. Within Sikkim state, the North and East districts represent maximum diversity of edible wild plants due to the wilderness and inaccessibility to most of the habitats. An average rural family annually consumes nearly 8 types of edible wild plants, and a few species provide over five meals in a season. Selected plants also form a source of earning to a few families that sell them in local markets. It is suggested that the high diversity of edible plants needs to be conserved for future use. Some species may be grown in traditional agroforestry systems and on marginal lands of otherwise low agricultural value. Such measures may help protect wild plant resources in their natural habitats.     

Wild Mushroom Markets in Central Mexico and a Case Study at Ozumba

Wild Mushroom Markets in Central Mexico and a Case Study at Ozumba. More than 200 species of wild edible mushrooms are consumed in Mexico, and over 100 are sold in local, regional, and wholesale markets. This paper analyzes general trends in the commercialization of wild edible mushrooms at twelve markets in central Mexico, where at least 90 species are sold and more than 100 local names were registered. The paper then focuses its analysis on the traditional market at Ozumba (state of Mexico) near Izta-Popo and Zoquiapan national parks. In 2006, 411 stands selling more than 60 mushroom species were sampled throughout the year to record information on the vendors and the species they sold. The greatest diversity of species was recorded in July and August. More than 90% of the wild mushroom vendors were women, and 64% were 40 to 60 years old. The economic value of wild mushrooms in some regions of Mexico appears to contribute to the maintenance of traditional ethnobiological knowledge, generally observed to be in overall decline.     

Wild and native plants and mushrooms sold in the open-air markets of south-eastern Poland

Background

The study of plants and fungi sold in open-air markets is an important part of ethnobotanical enquiry. Only few such studies were carried out in Europe.

Methods

Four of the largest open-air markets of south-eastern Poland were visited regularly, and the plants sold in them were recorded between 2013 and 2015. The aim of the study was to record native and/or wild species sold in the markets. All the plants sold in the markets were photographed regularly. In each market, 25 sellers were interviewed. Voucher specimens were collected and fungi were identified using DNA barcoding.

Results

Altogether, 468 species of plants were recorded, 117 of them native to south-eastern Poland – 19 only collected from the wild and 11 both wild and cultivated. Seventeen of the species are under legal protection. Most protected plants were sold from cultivation, although proper authorization procedures had not been performed. Thirty-two species of fungi were sold (including two cultivated species), all of them for culinary purposes. Two species (Lactarius quieticolor, Leccinum schistophilum) are new to the mycobiota of Poland.Ornamental plants constituted a large section of the market, and they dominated the group of native species. Food plants dominated among wild-collected plants and were sold mainly as fruits for jams, juices and alcoholic drinks, or as culinary herbs. Very few medicinal or green vegetable plants were sold. An interesting feature of the markets was the sale of Ledum palustre as an insect repellent.

Conclusions

Finding two species of fungi which are new to Poland highlights the importance of DNA barcoding in ethnomycological studies. Most items in the markets are ornamental plants, or edible fruits and mushrooms. Very few medicinal plants and green vegetables are sold, which differentiates the markets from southern European ones. Such a pattern is probably the model for most central European markets.

     

Patterns of use and knowledge of wild edible plants in distinct ecological environments: a case study of a Mapuche community from northwestern Patagonia

The multiple use of distinct ecological environments in the search for wild resources has been practiced since ancestral times in aboriginal communities inhabiting northwestern Patagonia. This paper examines the actual use and knowledge of wild edible plants in a Mapuche community presently settled in one of the most arid areas of Patagonia, far from the temperate forests where their ancestors used to live. The difference between knowledge of and use of wild plants is analyzed emphasizing that these differences could contribute to the understanding of eroding processes believed to be occurring in the community. These objectives are studied quantitatively by utilizing ethnobotanical indices, partially derived from ecological theory. Our results indicate that the Paineo dwellers still utilize multiple ecological gathering environments and have thorough plant knowledge of both native and exotic species. The Andean forest, more than 50km away from this community, is the environment from which the Paineo dwellers know the greatest total richness and the highest diversity of wild edible plants, followed by the Monte–Steppe species and lastly, those growing around their homes. The transmission of wild edible plant knowledge in the Paineo community diminishes with age, and the forest plants are the most vulnerable to loss. Our results have shown that the knowledge and consumption of wild edible plants follows a pattern according to ecological conditions of the gathering environments, as well as the cultural heritage of the Paineo people.     

Wild foods from Southern Ecuador

This study documents 354 species of wild edible plants consumed in southern Ecuador, an area with a very high species diversity. Southern Ecuador is inhabited by Mestizo farmers and by small communities of indigenous Shuar and Saraguros. The majority (85%) of the 354 species have edible fruits. Various regional food and drink preparations in which wild plants are used are described. Most (86%), however, are consumed raw. Thirtyeight percent have additional uses, primarily as fuelwood and timber. The fruits or other edible parts of 21 species are sold at local and regional markets. Three new species were discovered during this study.     

Wild Edible Plant Markets in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo

Benefits from wild edible plants (WEP) are multiple for rural households as well as urban traders. To set species priorities for WEP market development and domestication, we performed an inventory of WEP species and traders in five markets and one road-side selling point in Kisangani. During four one-month sessions between September 2007 and July 2008, all WEP traders present in the target markets were interviewed. We registered 119 unique sellers, selling 15 different WEPs. The September-October period and ‘Marché Central’ were the most important for WEP trade in Kisangani. Added values and net incomes generated through WEP sales were very divergent. Four types of traders could be distinguished. Gnetum africanum trade involves the more dynamic traders. Cola acuminata, Garcinia kola and Piper guineense spices have local and international market potential. Within the wild fruits category we propose Landolphia owariensis and Tetracarpidium conophorum as priority species for local market development.     

Collection,Consumption, and Sale of Lusala (Dioscorea hirtiflora)—a Wild Yam—by Rural Households in Southern Province,Zambia

Economic Botany - Dioscorea hirtiflora Benth. is an indigenous wild edible tuberous climbing plant native to Zambia. Known as lusala, the tubers are sold in markets across southern Zambia. Lusala...     

Cultural transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge in a rural community of northwestern Patagonia, Argentina

In the present study we analyzed medicinal and edible plant utilization in Cuyin Manzano, a small rural population located near the Andean forests of Argentina. We also studied where and when plant knowledge was learned, who the principal transmitters were, and how people were taught. The participants were interviewed individually and at random, by means of a semi-structured questionnaire. Interviews were carried out in 16 families in order to examine the present use of wild plants. The inhabitants of Cuyin Manzano cited 87 plants: 63 medicinal and 24 edible species. They mentioned on average 31 ± 10 species per person. Similar patterns of plant use were found in young and old people alike, irrespective of gender. Learning about useful plants took place at an early age as a result of family tradition. This local knowledge is acquired and taught “by doing,” and is mostly transmitted vertically through family dissemination. Wild plant learning implies the acquisition of plants' physical and functional features as well as their environmental characteristics.     

Wild food plants in South Korea; market presence,new crops,and exports to the United States

South Korean food markets were examined for the presence of wildgathered food plants between 1989 and 1995. One hundred twelve species belonging to 83 genera and 40 families were found. Plants used as leafy vegetables were the most common (73.2%), followed by fruits (22.3%), root vegetables (6.2%) and flower foods (4.4%). Nearly half of these plant species belonged to three families: Asteraceae (29) Liliaceae (10) and Apiaceae (7). As of 1992, 19 of these wild foods were also being grown as new crops, a development that involved more than 25000 farm households. At least eleven of these wild food plants were exported to the United States in 1994, where they are sold by Korean food markets.     

Sustainable Utilization and Economic Development of Some Plant Resources in Northern Pakistan

Overshadowed by the vast impact that habitat loss has on targeted plant species survival, it is easy to overlook the fact that utilization and harvesting of species can often result in their genetic depletion and in an often rapid downward trend of their population status. In this regard an ethnobotanical study on the medicinal plants of Shawar valley, District Swat was conducted with the aims to document medicinal plants and to examine the current status of the medicinal plants trade as well as the market chain starting from collectors to consumers. The survey reported 50 species of plants belonging to 33 families as ethnomedicinally important. These species were used as crud drugs by the local people and folk-lore for treating diseases in traditional system of medicine. The detailed local uses, recipe preparation along with their local names and diseases treated were recorded for each species.Market survey revealed that the structure of medicinal plant trade is complex and heterogeneous, involving many players. The collectors are often not aware of the high market prices and medicinal values, and most of the collected material is sold to local middlemen at a very low price. There was an increase of 3 to 5 folds in prices from collectors to the national market.Recommendations were given in the spheres of training sustainable harvesting and post harvesting of wild medicinal plant resources, trade monitoring, equitable sharing of benefits of wild resources, improved control on harvesting and trade for the conservation of resources, enhancement of cultivation efforts, future research into trade in wild harvested plants, community participation in natural resource management and value addition in the herbal products to maximize the benefits.     

Quantifying the Trade in Cycads (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Encephalartos</Emphasis> Species) in the Traditional Medicine Markets of Johannesburg and Durban,South Africa<Superscript>1</Superscript>

Quantifying the Trade in Cycads ( Encephalartos Species) in the Traditional Medicine Markets of Johannesburg and Durban, South Africa. Cycads have been used for traditional purposes for centuries, mainly as a source of starch during droughts and famines. In South Africa, Encephalartos species are traded for traditional medicine (TM) in local TM markets. The 2009 IUCN Red Data assessment for South African flora lists 78% of the 37 indigenous Encephalartos species as “Threatened”, with three species already “Extinct in the Wild” (EW). South African cycads face an extinction crisis, primarily due to collecting for the horticultural trade. The trade in Encephalartos for TM also has a significant impact on several species, and is largely understudied. In this paper, the trade in Encephalartos for TM was quantified in South Africa’s two largest TM markets, Faraday in Johannesburg and Warwick in Durban. Harvesting of South African Encephalartos for TM involves the removal of bark strips and/or whole stem sections. Encephalartos species were sold at 26% and 13% of the stalls at Faraday and Warwick, respectively, with an estimated 9.0 metric tons traded at Warwick in 2009. Stem samples purchased in the markets were assigned to stem diameter size classes using a size class chart, and regression analysis was used to validate the allocations. Most harvesting was from sub-adult and adult cycads, and it appears that bark strips are removed from large arborescent plants, whereas smaller individuals and subterranean-stemmed species are harvested by removing the entire plant. There is generally a positive relationship between stem diameter and leaf base length as well as stem diameter and pith radius. The former can be used as a predictor of stem diameter size class for market samples that prove difficult to assign to diameter classes using the chart. Overall, this is the first study to quantify the trade in Encephalartos for TM in South Africa with reference to the size classes of the plants traded.     

桂西壮族饮食文化中野生食用植物的民族植物学研究

运用民族植物学方法,以广西西部的1市1区10县为研究区域,对桂西壮族饮食文化中利用野生食用植物的传统知识进行了调查和研究.结果显示:桂西壮族饮食文化中常用的野生食用植物有46科102种,其中菊科(Asteraceae)种类最多(13种),其次为苋科(Amaranthaceae)、伞形科(Umbelliferae)、蔷薇科(Rosaceae)和豆科(Leguminosae)(各6种).食用部位常为嫩枝叶、果实、全株、花、根和茎等,其中,食用部位为嫩枝叶的种类最多(48种),食用部位为根和茎的种类最少(8种),食用部位为果实、全株和花的种类分别有18、17和11种.食用方法有炒、煮汤、生食、凉拌、水煮、茶饮、上汤和配菜等,常见的食用方法为炒和煮汤.采摘时间主要为春季和夏季,部分种类可全年采食.不同区域的壮族民众对野生食用植物的选择具有随机性,主要依据方便、易得、适用、无污染等标准进行选择,且生活在不同区域、不同环境的壮族民众对野生食用植物的选择具有较明显差异.综合分析结果表明:桂西壮族民众拥有丰富的利用野生食用植物的传统知识,具有食用植物种类丰富、食用部位多样、食用方法多样等特点,形成了富有民族特色的饮食文化.此外,根据研究结果,对桂西壮族特色饮食文化的保护和传承进行了探讨,并对当地野生食用植物资源的可持续利用提出了一些建议.     

Comparison of wild edible plant diversity and foraging strategies in two aboriginal communities of northwestern Patagonia

We have compared edible plant richness, diversity and differential patterns of use in two Mapuche communities of Argentina. The populations of Rams and Cayulef are located in a herbaceous steppe, far from the temperate forests of northwestern Patagonia where their ancestors lived in the past. Ecological concepts and methods, such as diversity indices, niche breadth and optimal foraging theory have been used in this comparative study. Our results indicate that the diversity of wild plants used in Rams and Cayulef is associated with the variety of gathering environments they visit. When comparing diversity indices among the three environments within each community, in Cayulef we found the highest diversity indices for steppe species and the lowest for forest plants. In contrast, in Rams the niche breadth is similar in all environments, indicating an ample exploration and use of edible wild plants. Cost and benefit trade-offs seem to be considered in both communities when edible plants are collected. Nevertheless, we found that the people from Rams not only utilize a greater richness of wild plants than the Cayulef people, but also use more nutritious resources, spend more time traveling to the gathering sites and a longer handling time in preparing these edible plants. This study has quantitatively shown that the restricted access to Pehuen forest (Araucaria araucana) is the main factor which seems to limit wild plant diversity used in these Mapuche communities.     

宁夏野生食用植物资源的调查与信息数据库的建立

通过野外调查与室内工作相结合,对宁夏野生食用植物资源进行调查与统计,建立宁夏野生食用植物资源数据库,并提出了宁夏野生食用植物资源开发和利用存在的问题。结果初步调查到宁夏野生食用资源植物共计74科186属348种10类,其中饮料及野果类植物与野菜植物具有一定的开发潜力,应该在这些野生食用资源植物中进行进一步的筛选,最终主要集中于人工驯化与栽培上。此外针对宁夏野生食用植物资源开发和利用面临的问题,需加强对宁夏野生食用植物资源状况的调查,并进行深入的研究,在前面所做的基础研究上,筛选特色的野生食用资源植物进行合理的开发和利用,之后对筛选出的野生食用资源植物进行人工栽培等工作,在土地可持续利用的前提下,研究野生食用资源植物与其他栽培作物间作的模式,同时在发展过程中通过收集珍贵濒危野生植物资源植物的种质资源,而对其加以保护。     

Medicinal plants of Mt. Pelion,Greece

This study focuses on plants used for medicinal purposes in the Mt. Pelion area of Greece; however other plant uses were noted when discovered. A total of 225 taxa representing 77 families are presented along with habitat data and ethnobotanical information when relevant. Some notes on related species are also included. In addition to ethnobotanical field research which included collection of voucher specimens, ancient literature pertaining to plant usage was also consulted. Local markets that sold wild plants or their products were investigated as well. Some plants not known to be ethnobotanically significant were also collected in order to learn more about species distribution on Mt. Pelion. It is possible that ancient plant usage information that was lost due to the destruction of classical literary works has survived in the oral tradition in the Mt. Pelion area and elsewhere in Greece. A number of little known psychoactive and narcotic plant uses (including ivy as an additive to wine) are reported in this publication.     

Comparative Survey of Entomophagy and Entomotherapeutic Practices in Six Tribes of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh (India)

Background

Dalmatia is an interesting place to study the use of wild greens as it lies at the intersection of influence of Slavs, who do not usually use many species of wild greens, and Mediterranean culinary culture, where the use of multiple wild greens is common. The aim of the study was to document the mixtures of wild green vegetables which are sold in all the vegetable markets of Dalmatia.

Methods

All vendors (68) in all 11 major markets of the Dalmatian coast were interviewed. The piles of wild vegetables they sold were searched and herbarium specimens taken from them.

Results

The mean number of species in the mix was 5.7. The most commonly sold wild plants are: Sonchus oleraceus L., Allium ampeloprasum L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Urospermum picroides F.W.Schmidt, Papaver rhoeas L., Daucus carota L., Taraxacum sp., Picris echioides L., Silene latifolia Poir. and Crepis spp. Also the cultivated beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and a few cultivated Brassicaceae varieties are frequent components. Wild vegetables from the mix are usually boiled for 20–30 minutes and dressed with olive oil and salt. Altogether at least 37 wild taxa and 13 cultivated taxa were recorded. Apart from the mixes, Asparagus acutifolius L. and Tamus communis L. shoots are sold in separate bunches (they are usually eaten with eggs), as well as some Asteraceae species, the latter are eaten raw or briefly boiled.

Conclusions

The rich tradition of eating many wild greens may result both from strong Venetian and Greek influences and the necessity of using all food resources available in the barren, infertile land in the past. Although the number of wild-collected green vegetables is impressive we hypothesize that it may have decreased over the years, and that further in-depth local ethnobotanical studies are needed in Dalmatia to record the disappearing knowledge of edible plants.     

Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Wild Plants in Some Selected Districts of Ethiopia

The ethnobotanical study on edible wild plants was carried out from May to December, 2001, in four districts of Ethiopia. The study areas included the rural and semiurban settings of Alamata, Cheha, Goma, and Yilmana Denssa districts of Tigray, Southern Peoples, Oromiya, and Amhara regional states, respectively. Voucher plant specimens were collected along with ethnobotanical information, and scientific names were determined. One hundred and fifty two plant parts from 130 species were recognized and consumed in these districts. Children consumed more wild plants during seasons of food availability (sufficient crop stock) than adults. There was marked increase in quantity and number of wild plant species consumed during food shortage and famine. A few of the reportedly edible species caused health problems that sometimes lead to fatality. Research into the safety and nutritional composition of edible wild plants and fungi is warranted. Selected edible wild plant species should be promoted as supplements to dietary variety and/or bridging the hungry periods of food shortage.     

The Investigation on Utilization of Wild Medicinal Plants in Dietary Culture of Quanzhou,Southern Fujian

An ethnobotanical survey on the medicinal plant species marketed in Quanzhou, southern Fujian, was conducted in order to document traditional medicinal knowledge and application of medicinal plants in dietary. In addition to literature review, data was obtained using ethnobotanical tools and methods, including personal interviews during field trips, collecting herbarium specimens, and species identification by cross referencing. The results showed that: 1) There are 148 wild medicinal species, belonging to 56 plant families and 117 genera present in Quanzhou, southern Fujian. Among them, 46 species are edible wild herbs, 37 species are medicinal plants, 38 species are used as tea substituting plants or herbal tea,22 species are wild fruits, 4 species are used as spices and 1 species is used to make bean jelly; 2) The plant families which comprise a major part of the pool are Compositae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Orchidaceae and Moraceae; 3) This study explored the utilization of the medicinal plants in Quanzhou area, and proposed methods to inherit the culture of using wild plants in dietary, as well as methods to conserve the edible medicinal wild plant resources.     

Cultural,economic, and ecological factors influencing management of wild plants and mushrooms interchanged in Purépecha markets of Mexico

Background

Traditional markets outstandingly contribute to conservation of biocultural diversity, social relations, and cultural values. These markets reflect life strategies and forms people of a region interact with their biodiversity and territories, as well as traditional ecological knowledge and management practices. To understand the factors motivating plant and mushroom management, we analyzed the resources cultural and economic values, their role in people’s subsistence, and the relation of these values with the resources spatial and temporal availability. Our study based on the supposition that traditional markets are settings of interchange of resources with the highest importance for people’s life in a region. Also, that the cultural, economic, and ecological factors influence values of the resources, and the demand on them determine pressures on the most valuable resources which, when scarce, motivate management innovation, otherwise become extinct.

Methods

We documented cultural, economic, and ecological aspects, as well as management techniques of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms interchanged in three traditional markets of the Pátzcuaro Lake region, in central-western Mexico. For doing that, from February 2015 to March 2018, we conducted 175 visits to markets and 89 semi-structured interviews to producers, gatherers, and sellers of wild and weedy plants and mushrooms. Based on participant observation and interviews, we identified variables related to culture, economic, and ecological aspects, as well as management regimes of resources and management systems, which were documented and used as indicators for quantitative analyses. Through principal components analyses (PCA), we determined the indexes of cultural and economic importance (ICEI), management intensity (IMI), and ecological risk (IR) of the resources studied. For conducting that, we classified plant and mushroom species according to their cultural, economic, ecological, and technological indicators, respectively. The score of the first principal component was considered as the index for each group of variables, respectively. To identify relations between cultural importance and risk, we performed linear regression analyses between ICEI and IR indexes.

Results

We recorded 57 species of wild and weedy plants used as food, medicine, and ornamental, and 17 species of edible mushrooms. The variables with the highest weight in the ICEI are related to the need of a resource according to people, its recognizing, the number of communities and markets offering it in markets, its explicit preference expressed by people, the effort invested in obtaining it, and the form it is interchanged. Gathering is practiced in all mushrooms and wild and weedy plants from forests and agricultural areas; 11 species in addition receive 1 or more forms of management (enhancing, selective let standing, propagation through seeds or vegetative parts, transplantation, and/or protection). The management intensity and complexity are explained by variables related to management practices and systems. Plants receiving selective management have the higher management intensity. Silvicultural management (in situ management in forests) was recorded in all species of mushrooms, as well as in more than 80% of medicinal, ceremonial and ornamental plants, and in more than 50% of the edible plants. In agricultural systems, people manage more than 90% of the edible plants recorded to be under a management regime, 25% of the managed medicinal plants, and 30.7% of the managed ceremonial and ornamental plants. In homegardens, people manage 41.6% of the medicinal plants recorded and 26.6% of the edible plants, to have them available near home. Nearly 63% of the species interchanged in the markets studied are gathered in forests without any other management form. In this group are included all mushroom species, 61.5% of ceremonial/ornamental plants, 50% of medicinal, and 33.3% of edible plants. The linear regression between ICEI an IER is significantly negative for edible species with high management intensity R²?=?0.505 (p?=?0.0316), because of their management. But in medicinal and ornamental plants, the risk is high if the cultural importance increases, even when management practices like transplanting and propagation in homegardens are carried out.

Conclusions

Traditional markets are settings of interchange of products, knowledge, and experiences, where the ongoing factors and processes motivating management innovation can be identified and documented. This approach allows documenting processes occurring at regional level but would be benefited from deeper studies at local level in communities.