阿诺碱受体及其亚型2调控因子研究进展

阿诺碱受体(RyR)是心肌细胞等可兴奋细胞中重要的Ca2+释放受体,在维持细胞的兴奋性和生理功能方面起重要作用.研究发现,RyR存在3个亚型,每个亚型都是由4个单体组成的四聚体,后者构成Ca2+释放通道.RyR的结构中有调控因子的结合位点,一些内源性调控因子可影响RyR的构型和Ca2+释放.结合作者的研究,就RyR的结构功能、RyR2的一些重要内源性调控因子及其调控机制做一简要综述.     

Ca2+对骨骼肌钙释放通道的调节

钙释放通道（calcium release channel）又称Ryanodine受体（RyR）,是细胞内质网膜上介导细胞内钙信号转导的离子通道。RyR1在骨骼肌细胞的兴奋-收缩偶联过程中起重要作用,是肌质网快速释放Ca^2＋的通道。许多调节因素,如一些内源性蛋白（FK结合蛋白、钙调素、钙结合蛋白）和一些离子（Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋）,通过不同的作用位点与RyR1结合,调控RyR1的结构与功能。研究表明,Ca^2＋是众多调节RyR1因素中的核心成分和前提条件,其对RyR1的结构与功能有重要的调控作用。     

FK-506结合蛋白对钙释放通道的调控

细胞内自由钙作为一种重要的细胞信使广泛地参与细胞生理功能调控.胞内钙库(内质网系和肌浆网系)对调节细胞内自由钙水平起着重要的作用.钙库膜上的钙释放通道(ryanodine受体和三磷酸肌醇受体)受许多因素调控,其中之一就是新近研究得相当多的FK506结合蛋白.免疫抑制剂FK506能特异地结合钙库上一种分子质量为12 ku左右的蛋白,这种FK506结合蛋白与钙释放通道形成一种紧密连接的复合体,在正常生理情况下对钙释放通道起着十分重要的调控作用.     

Ryanodine受体和内源性调节蛋白的相互作用

Ryanodine受体(RyR)是细胞内分子量最大的离子通道,在调节各种细胞内钙信号转导方面扮演着重要的角色。在骨骼肌中,RyR和双氢吡啶受体共同参与肌细胞的兴奋-收缩偶联。同时,一些内源性蛋白(包括FK结合蛋白、钙调素、钙结合蛋白、junctin和triadin等)通过不同的方式,在不同的阶段与RyR结合,形成一个复杂的调控网络,协助RyR发挥正常生理功能,实现结构与功能的统一。     

Ryanodine受体间相互作用及其与钙释放功能的关系

在真核生物和原核生物的生物膜上都存在由同种受体蛋白相互连接在一起形成的紧密二维排列。最近的模型计算表明这种排列方式可能是一种新型信号转导机制的结构基础,相邻受体可通过功能上的耦联优化信号处理性能。Ryanodine受体（ryanodine receptor,RyR）／钙释放通道通常在肌肉的肌浆网膜上形成二维晶格排列,该蛋白成为研究受体二维排列及其生理功能的一个很好的模型。本文综述了近几年在RyR相互作用及其二维排列工作模式和生理功能研究方面的进展,着重介绍了我们实验室利用新方法对RyR相互作用及其调控进行的研究工作。我们研究中发现了RyR功能状态对其相互作用的调控,本文对据此提出的RyR二维排列的“动态耦联模型”及其可能的生理功能进行了详细讨论。     

G蛋白偶联受体激酶的调控

G蛋白偶联受体激酶(G protein-coupled receptor kinase,GRK)特异地使活化的G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptor,GPCR)发生磷酸化及脱敏化,从而终止后者介导的信号转导通路。研究表明,GRK的功能被高度调控,并具有下行调节GPCR的能力。调控GRK功能的机制包括两个层次：(1)多种途径调控激酶的亚细胞定位及活性,包括GPCR介导、G蛋白偶联、磷脂作用、Ca^2 结合蛋白调控、蛋白激酶C活化、MAPK反馈抑制、小窝蛋白抑制等;(2)调控GRK表达水平,主要体现在其与某些疾病的联系。     

Ryanodine受体相关的肌肉疾病及其研究进展

Ryanodine受体(ryanodine receptor,RyR)是位于细胞内肌质网(sarcoplasmic reticulum,SR)膜上的钙释放通道,是骨骼肌和心肌细胞兴奋-收缩偶联过程中的关键蛋白。RyR结构和功能的改变,往往导致肌细胞兴奋-收缩的解偶联,从而引发一些相关的肌肉疾病。目前的研究肯定这些疾病的发病机制都与RyR密切相关,本文就此方面的最新研究进展进行综述,为预防和治疗这些疾病提供理论依据。     

不同功能状态的兔骨骼肌ryanodine受体的原子力显微镜研究

用原子力显微镜观察了外源性磷脂对兔骨骼肌ryanodine受体/钙释放通道(RyR1)结构的影响, 并且测定了有外源性磷脂的RyR1在不同功能状态时高度与弹性的变化. 结果表明: 有外源性磷脂的RyR1能更好地保持其完整的结构; AMP和Ca²⁺共同作用使其Young模量值增加, 而表观高度不变. 但是, 当用其他激动剂或抑制剂作用时, RyR1高度和Young模量值没有显著变化.     

β-肾上腺素能受体调控心肌细胞钙释放的分子机制

β-肾上腺素能受体（βAR）是最经典的G蛋白耦联受体。在心室肌细胞中,βAR可以提高细胞膜L-型钙通道（LCC）介导的钙内流的幅度和同步性,通过钙致钙释放机制触发肌质网（SR）更强的钙释放活动,从而起到调节心脏收缩能力的作用。然而,目前仍不清楚β-蛋白激酶A（PKA）信号通路如何直接调控肌质网钙释放通道ryanodine受体（RyR）的功能,该领域的研究结果存在很大争议。本文使用特殊的单通道钙成像技术,通过去极化方法激活单个LCC产生钙小星,记录触发的RyR钙火花。结果表明,在βAR激动剂异丙肾上腺素（1μM）作用20分钟内,单个LCC触发的钙火花幅度显著上升,且该效应不依赖于LCC单通道钙电流的变化;βAR激动下钙火花的钙释放电流幅度与肌质网钙储量的比值显著提高,表明βAR信号动员了更多的RyR通道参与同步钙释放活动;βAR激动下钙小星触发钙火花的耦联潜伏期时间缩短,成功率上升,表明βAR信号通路增强了LCC—RyR的分子间耦联效率。上述效应不依赖BAR引起的在肌质网钙储量上升,且能够被PKA抑制剂Rp-β-CPT-cAMP（100μM）和H89（10μM）消除。上述结果证明,βAR—PKA信号能够提高RvR对LCC单通道电流的响应速率和同步性。由此揭示的交感神经调节心脏功能的分子机制,将为进一步研究心脏疾病下βhR信号的异常变化奠定基础。     

以谷胱甘肽为电子供体的细胞膜氧化还原系统

内载谷胱甘肽(GSH)的大豆(Glycine max L.)下胚轴正向型质膜囊泡具有以GSH为电子供体的跨膜电子传递活性,能还原膜外电子受体FeCN和细胞色素(Cyt)C,其还原速率分别为(21.6±0.6)nmolFeCN·min~(-1)·mg~(-1)蛋白和(6.6±1.0)nmol Cyt C·min~(-1)·mg~(-1)蛋白。这种跨膜电子传递能引起膜上Cyt P-450吸收光谱标志带(Soret带)的变化,表明Cyt P-450参与了这一氧化还原过程。在跨质膜电子传递的同时伴随着H~ 运输和膜电位的改变。     

Classes of thiols that influence the activity of the skeletal muscle calcium release channel

The skeletal muscle Ca(2+) release channel/ryanodine receptor (RyR1) is a prototypic redox-responsive ion channel. Nearly half of the 101 cysteines per RyR1 subunit are kept in a reduced (free thiol) state under conditions comparable with resting muscle. Here we assessed the effects of physiological determinants of cellular redox state (oxygen tension, reduced (GSH) or oxidized (GSSG) glutathione, and NO/O(2) (released by 3-morpholinosydnonimine)) on RyR1 redox state and activity. Oxidation of approximately 10 RyR1 thiols (from approximately 48 to approximately 38 thiols/RyR1 subunit) had little effect on channel activity. Channel activity increased reversibly as the number of thiols was further reduced to approximately 23/subunit, whereas more extensive oxidation (to approximately 13 thiols/subunit) inactivated the channel irreversibly. Neither S-nitrosylation nor tyrosine nitration contributed to these effects. The results identify at least three functional classes of RyR1 thiols and suggest that 1) the channel may be protected from oxidation by a large reservoir of functionally inert thiols, 2) the channel may be designed to respond to moderate oxidative stress by a change in activation setpoint, and 3) the channel is susceptible to oxidative injury under more extensive conditions.     

Conformation-dependent stability of junctophilin 1 (JP1) and ryanodine receptor type 1 (RyR1) channel complex is mediated by their hyper-reactive thiols

Junctophilin 1 (JP1), a 72-kDa protein localized at the skeletal muscle triad, is essential for stabilizing the close apposition of T-tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes to form junctions. In this study we report that rapid and selective labeling of hyper-reactive thiols found in both JP1 and ryanodine receptor type 1 (RyR1) with 7-diethylamino-3-(4'-maleimidylphenyl)-4-methylcoumarin, a fluorescent thiol-reactive probe, proceeded 12-fold faster under conditions that minimize RyR1 gating (e.g. 10 mM Mg2+) compared with conditions that promote high channel activity (e.g. 100 microM Ca2+, 10 mM caffeine, 5 mM ATP). The reactivity of these thiol groups was very sensitive to oxidation by naphthoquinone, H2O2, NO, or O2, all known modulators of the RyR1 channel complex. Using preparative SDS-PAGE, in-gel tryptic digestion, high pressure liquid chromatography, and mass spectrometry-based peptide sequencing, we identified 7-diethylamino-3-(4'-maleimidylphenyl)-4-methylcoumarin-thioether adducts on three cysteine residues of JP1 (101, 402, and 627); the remaining five cysteines of JP1 were unlabeled. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated a physical interaction between JP1 and RyR1 that, like thiol reactivity, was sensitive to RyR1 conformation and chemical status of the hyper-reactive cysteines of JP1 and RyR1. These findings support a model in which JP1 interacts with the RyR1 channel complex in a conformationally sensitive manner and may contribute integral redox-sensing properties through reactive sulfhydryl chemistry.     

Oxidation and reduction of pig skeletal muscle ryanodine receptors

Time-dependent effects of cysteine modification were compared in skeletal ryanodine receptors (RyRs) from normal pigs and RyR(MH) (Arg(615) to Cys(615)) from pigs susceptible to malignant hyperthermia, using the oxidizing reagents 4,4'-dithiodipyridine (4, 4'-DTDP) and 5,5'-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) or the reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT). Normal and RyR(MH) channels responded similarly to all reagents. DTNB (1 mM), either cytoplasmic (cis) or luminal (trans), or 1 mM 4,4'-DTDP (cis) activated RyRs, introducing an additional long open time constant. 4,4'-DTDP (cis), but not DTNB, inhibited channels after >5 min. Activation and inhibition were relieved by DTT (1-10 mM). DTT (10 mM, cytoplasmic or luminal), without oxidants, activated RyRs, and activation reversed with 1 mM DTNB. Control RyR activity was maintained with 1 mM DTNB and 10 mM DTT present on the same or opposite sides of the bilayer. We suggest that 1) 4,4'-DTDP and DTNB covalently modify RyRs by oxidizing activating or inhibiting thiol groups; 2) a modified thiol depresses mammalian skeletal RyR activity under control conditions; 3) both the activating thiols and the modified thiols, accessible from either cytoplasm or lumen, reside in the transmembrane region; 4) some cardiac sulfhydryls are unavailable in skeletal RyRs; and 5) Cys(615) in RyR(MH) is functionally unimportant in redox cycling.     

CPM抑制了由1,4NQ诱导的对骨肌肌质网 SR钙通道RyR1的激活效应

利用7－diethylamino-3-(4‘-maleimidylphenyl)-4-methylcoumarin(CPM)甲基化钙通道CPM能明显阻碍由1,4NQ诱导的对RyR1的激活,但对由1,4NQ产生的抑制没有明显作用。用经CPM预处理过和没有处理过的样品与1,4NQ温育手离心清洗,发现未经CPM处理的样品经激活和抑制浓度的1,4NQ温育后,离心清洗不能消除1,4NQ对RyR1的激活和抑制。而经CPM处理后的样品,在1,4NQ的激活浓度和抑制浓度下,离心清洗后 有观测到1,4NQ诱导的激活态,但抑制态仍然明显存在,以上结果说明,CPM所识别的特异活性硫醇参与了1,4NQ激活作用：CPM与此硫醇发生甲基化作用,因此阻断了1,4NQ对RyR1上的激活部位硫醇发生作用,使钙通道不能被激活。     

Effects of pO2 on the activation of skeletal muscle ryanodine receptors by NO: a cautionary note

Eu et al., reported that O2 dynamically controls the redox state of 6-8 out of 50 thiols per skeletal ryanodine receptor (RyR1) subunit and thereby tunes the response of Ca2+-release channels to authentic nitric oxide (NO) [J.P. Eu, J. Sun, L. Xu, J.S. Stamler, G. Meissner, The skeletal muscle calcium release channel: coupled O2 sensor and NO signaling functions, Cell 102 (2000) 499-509]. A role for O2 was based on the observation that RyR1 can be activated by submicromolar NO at physiological ( approximately 10 mmHg) but not ambient (approximately 150 mmHg) pO2. At ambient pO2, these critical thiols were oxidized but incubation at low pO2 reset the redox state of these thiols, closed RyR1 channels and made these thiols available for nitrosation by low NO concentrations. Eu et al., postulated the existence of a redox/O2sensor that couples channel activity to NO and pO2 and explained that "the nature of the 'redox/O2 sensor' that couples channel activity to intracellular redox chemistry is a mystery". Here, we re-examined the effect of pO2 on RyR1 and find that incubation of RyR1 at low pO2 did not alter channel activity and NO (0.5-50 microM) failed to activate RyR1 despite a wide range of pO2 pre-incubation conditions. We show that low levels of NO do not activate RyR1, do not reverse the inhibition of RyR1 by calmodulin (CaM) even at physiological pO2. Similarly, the pre-incubation of SR vesicles in low pO2 (for 10-80 min) did not inhibit channel activity or sensitization of RyR1 to NO. We discuss the significance of these findings and propose that caution should be taken when considering a role for pO2 and nitrosation by NO as mechanisms that tune RyRs in striated muscles.     

Off-target thiol alkylation by the NADPH oxidase inhibitor 3-benzyl-7-(2-benzoxazolyl)thio-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine (VAS2870)

Specific inhibitors of the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the NADPH oxidases (Nox's) are potentially important therapeutic agents in the wide range of human diseases that are characterized by excessive ROS production. It has been proposed that VAS2870 (3-benzyl-7-(2-benzoxazolyl)thio-1,2,3- triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine), identified as an inhibitor of Nox2 by small-molecule screening, may serve as an example of such an agent. Here we show that VAS2870 inhibits ROS production in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of mammalian skeletal muscle, previously identified with Nox4, and thereby abrogates O(2)-coupled redox regulation of the ryanodine receptor-Ca(2+) channel (RyR1). However, we also find that VAS2870 modifies directly identified cysteine thiols within RyR1. Mass spectrometric analysis of RyR1 exposed in situ to VAS2870 and of VAS2870-treated glutathione indicated that thiol modification is through alkylation by the benzyltriazolopyrimidine moiety of VAS2870. Thus, VAS2870 exerts significant off-target effects, and thiol alkylation by VAS2870 (and closely related Nox inhibitors) may in fact replicate some of the effects of ROS on cellular thiol redox status. In addition, we show that SR-localized Nox4 is inhibited by other thiol-alkylating agents, consistent with a causal role for cysteine modification in the inhibition of ROS production by VAS2870.     

Ascorbate-mediated electron transfer in protein thiol oxidation in the endoplasmic reticulum

Addition of, or gulonolactone oxidase-dependent in situ generation of, ascorbate provoked the oxidation of protein thiols, which was accompanied by ascorbate consumption in liver microsomal vesicles. The maximal rate of protein thiol oxidation was similar upon gulonolactone, ascorbate or dehydroascorbate addition. Cytochrome P450 inhibitors (econazole, proadifen, quercetin) decreased ascorbate consumption and the gulonolactone or ascorbate-stimulated thiol oxidation. The results demonstrate that the ascorbate/dehydroascorbate redox couple plays an important role in electron transfer from protein thiols to oxygen in the hepatic endoplasmic reticulum, even in gulonolactone oxidase deficient species.     

Gating charges in the activation and inactivation processes of the HERG channel

The hERG channel has a relatively slow activation process but an extremely fast and voltage-sensitive inactivation process. Direct measurement of hERG's gating current (Piper, D.R., A. Varghese, M.C. Sanguinetti, and M. Tristani-Firouzi. 2003. PNAS. 100:10534-10539) reveals two kinetic components of gating charge transfer that may originate from two channel domains. This study is designed to address three questions: (1) which of the six positive charges in hERG's major voltage sensor, S4, are responsible for gating charge transfer during activation, (2) whether a negative charge in the cytoplasmic half of S2 (D466) also contributes to gating charge transfer, and (3) whether S4 serves as the sole voltage sensor for hERG inactivation. We individually mutate S4's positive charges and D466 to cysteine, and examine (a) effects of mutations on the number of equivalent gating charges transferred during activation (z(a)) and inactivation (z(i)), and (b) sidedness and state dependence of accessibility of introduced cysteine side chains to a membrane-impermeable thiol-modifying reagent (MTSET). Neutralizing the outer three positive charges in S4 and D466 in S2 reduces z(a), and cysteine side chains introduced into these positions experience state-dependent changes in MTSET accessibility. On the other hand, neutralizing the inner three positive charges in S4 does not affect z(a). None of the charge mutations affect z(i). We propose that the scheme of gating charge transfer during hERG's activation process is similar to that described for the Shaker channel, although hERG has less gating charge in its S4 than in Shaker. Furthermore, channel domain other than S4 contributes to gating charge involved in hERG's inactivation process.     

The multiple functions of the thiol-based electron flow pathways of Escherichia coli: Eternal concepts revisited

Electron flow via thiols is a theme with many variations in all kingdoms of life. The favourable physichochemical properties of the redox active couple of two cysteines placed in the optimised environment of the thioredoxin fold allow for two electron transfers in between top biological reductants and ultimate oxidants. The reduction of ribonucleotide reductases by thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase of Escherichia coli (E. coli) was one of the first pathways to be elucidated. Diverse functions such as protein folding in the periplasm, maturation of respiratory enzymes, detoxification of hydrogen peroxide and prevention of oxidative damage may be based on two electron transfers via thiols. A growing field is the relation of thiol reducing pathways and the interaction of E. coli with different organisms. This concept combined with the sequencing of the genomes of different bacteria may allow for the identification of fine differences in the systems employing thiols for electron flow between pathogens and their corresponding mammalian hosts. The emerging possibility is the development of novel antibiotics.