DNA甲基化在动物胚胎和生殖细胞发育过程中的重编程

表观遗传信息DNA甲基化在动物的发育、细胞分化和器官形成过程中,起着至关重要的作用.近期,关于DNA甲基化在脊椎动物胚胎发育和生殖细胞发育过程重编程的研究取得了重要的进展.发现斑马鱼的早期胚胎完整地继承了精子的DNA甲基化图谱,而哺乳动物的早期胚胎和原始生殖细胞发育过程则经历了整体去甲基化并重新建立甲基化图谱的过程,但胚胎发育过程中基因的印迹区未发生DNA去甲基化,而生殖细胞发育过程中印迹区的甲基化修饰被消除.     

表观遗传信息在动物胚胎发育过程中的重编程

表观遗传修饰调控基因的表达对胚胎发育至关重要。近期,对表观遗传修饰在跨代遗传及早期胚胎发育重编程方面的认识获得了突破性进展。在此,着重阐述DNA甲基化修饰和染色体3D结构在跨代遗传和胚胎发育过程的重编程。在斑马鱼中,子代胚胎抛弃卵子的甲基化图谱,而完全继承精子的DNA甲基化图谱;哺乳动物早期胚胎发育过程出现了全基因组去甲基化的过程,父源和母源基因组都存在主动和被动的去甲基化过程。染色体3D结构在动物受精后,TAD(topologically associated domain)结构消失,并逐渐重新建立。这些重编程对胚胎的发育过程的基因调控起着重要的作用。     

TET蛋白质在动物原始生殖细胞发育过程中的作用

原始生殖细胞(primordial germ cell,PGC)是指能发育成精子或卵子的祖先细胞。PGC在向生殖细胞发育过程中会经历原有基因印记的去除、新印记的形成和维持,而DNA去甲基化是维持这一过程的主要机制。研究发现,TETs(ten-eleven translocations)蛋白质可以通过不同机制调控DNA去甲基化过程,在原始生殖细胞的形成和胚胎发育过程中发挥重要作用。该文综述了TET家族的结构、调控去甲基化的机制及其在动物原始生殖细胞发育过程中的作用。     

5-脱氧杂氮胞苷抑制小鼠附植前的胚胎发育

DNA甲基化在哺乳动物发育过程中有关键作用．在小鼠附植前胚胎发育过程中,DNA甲基化一直处于动态变化过程中．通过将体外受精胚在5-AZA-CdR中持续培养,研究5-AZA-CdR对小鼠附植前胚胎发育的影响,为附植前胚胎发育机理的研究及5-AZA-CdR的毒副作用研究提供试验基础．从原核期加入不同浓度的5-AZA-CdR时,胚胎不能发育到桑椹胚(0.2 和1.0 μmol/L)和4-细胞胚(5.0 μmol/L);从2-细胞期加入时,胚胎阻滞于未致密化的8-细胞(0.2 和1.0 μmol/L)和3/4-细胞期(5.0 μmol/L);而当从4-细胞加入时,虽然胚胎能够发育到早期桑椹胚,但发育比例同对照相比显著降低(P < 0.05)．进一步检测凋亡、基因组DNA甲基化和整体转录活性,结果显示,高浓度的5-AZA-CdR导致8-细胞和早期桑椹胚发生早期凋亡,而低浓度的5-AZA-CdR引起8-细胞和早期桑椹胚基因组DNA甲基化的降低和转录活性的降低,并且这种降低呈浓度依赖性．所以加入低浓度的5-AZA-CdR时,胚胎的DNA甲基化降低,引起转录活性的降低,进而导致胚胎发育的停滞．     

DNA甲基化与脊椎动物胚胎发育

DNA甲基化是指DNA甲基转移酶(DNMT)将DNA序列中的5′胞嘧啶转变为5′甲基胞嘧啶的化学修饰, 可以调控基因的时空特异性表达, 从而影响细胞命运决定和分化等生物学过程。近年来研究发现, DNA甲基化在脊椎动物胚胎早期发育中有重要作用, Dnmt基因的缺失会影响胚胎早期发育和多个器官的形成及分化, 如胚胎早期致死、内脏器官和神经系统终末分化缺陷以及血液发生紊乱等。文章总结了DNA甲基化转移酶在小鼠和斑马鱼发育过程中的动态变化, 并系统阐述了DNA甲基化在胚胎早期发育和器官发生中的作用, 重点揭示DNA 甲基化转移酶与组蛋白甲基化转移酶如何协同调控DNA甲基化从而影响基因转录的分子机理。DNA甲基化作为一种关键的表观遗传学因素, 全面系统地理解其在胚胎发育过程中的作用机制对靶向治疗人类相关疾病有一定的理论指导意义。     

胚胎发育过程中的DNA甲基化作用

哺乳动物的正常发育取决于表观遗传学调控机制准确无误地运行.其中尤为重要的是发生在原生殖细胞和胚胎中的基因组范围内的DNA甲基化模式重排等表观遗传学修饰.胚胎发育过程中的DNA甲基化作用与基因印记的建立、基因表达的调控以及细胞和胚胎的形态建成都密切相关.DNA甲基化发生机制和功能的阐明将对哺乳动物个体发育与人类疾病研究有重要意义.     

生殖细胞及早期胚胎基因组印记的表观调控

基因组印记是一种区别父母等位基因的表观遗传过程,可导致父源和母源基因特异性表达。印记是在配子发生过程中全基因组表观重编程时获得的,且在早期胚胎发育过程中得以维持。因此,在全基因组重编程过程中,对印记的识别和维持十分重要。本文概述了原始生殖细胞的印记清除、双亲原始生殖细胞的印记获得以及早期胚胎发育过程中印记维持的相关过程,并对在印记区域内保护印记基因免受全基因组DNA去甲基化的表观遗传因子的相关作用机制进行了讨论。     

牛早期胚胎发育中AID基因的表达及其调节区DNA甲基化的动态变化北大核心CSCD

以具有DNA主动去甲基化作用的活化诱导胞苷脱氨酶(Activation-induced cytidine deaminase,AID,亦称为AICDA)基因为研究对象,检测其在牛卵母细胞及体外受精胚胎发育不同阶段的表达变化及其调节方式,揭示细胞重编程分子机制。应用Real-time PCR、BSP(Bisulfite Sequencing PCR)和免疫荧光化学等方法分析DNA甲基化对牛早期胚胎发育中AID基因表达的影响。结果显示,AID基因在牛早期胚胎发育中受DNA甲基化的调控,AID基因的T-DMR(tissue-dependent and differentially methylated region)位于其转录起始位点-88 bp--431 bp。在牛卵母细胞成熟过程中,T-DMR第2和第3号Cp G位点的DNA甲基化明显去除,而其他位点都未发生变化。卵母细胞在成熟过程中AID基因的积累与DNA甲基化状态变化相关。在牛体外受精胚发育早期的各阶段,尽管AID基因的表达不同,但AID基因T-DMR除第2和第3号CpG位点一直都维持去甲基化状态外,其他位点始终维持甲基化状态。推测其表达的变化可能是胚胎基因组激活有关。以上研究表明,AID基因T-DMR的低甲基化与其表达存在一定的相关性。通过免疫荧光检测发现,从卵母细胞成熟期到桑椹胚期,AID蛋白都是均匀分布于细胞核和细胞质中。而囊胚时期大量AID蛋白集中于内细胞团,这可能对于内细胞团多能性的维持起重要作用。综上所述,牛卵母细胞成熟中积累的AID作用于受精过程,其启动子区的DNA去甲基化与AID基因的表达有关,胚胎基因组激活后AID基因的表达可能与胚胎发育有关。     

牛早期胚胎发育中AID基因的表达及其调节区DNA甲基化的动态变化

以具有DNA主动去甲基化作用的活化诱导胞苷脱氨酶(Activation-induced cytidine deaminase,AID,亦称为AICDA)基因为研究对象,检测其在牛卵母细胞及体外受精胚胎发育不同阶段的表达变化及其调节方式,揭示细胞重编程分子机制。应用Real-time PCR、BSP(Bisulfite Sequencing PCR)和免疫荧光化学等方法分析DNA甲基化对牛早期胚胎发育中AID基因表达的影响。结果显示,AID基因在牛早期胚胎发育中受DNA甲基化的调控,AID基因的T-DMR(tissue-dependent and differentially methylated region)位于其转录起始位点-88 bp--431 bp。在牛卵母细胞成熟过程中,T-DMR第2和第3号Cp G位点的DNA甲基化明显去除,而其他位点都未发生变化。卵母细胞在成熟过程中AID基因的积累与DNA甲基化状态变化相关。在牛体外受精胚发育早期的各阶段,尽管AID基因的表达不同,但AID基因T-DMR除第2和第3号CpG位点一直都维持去甲基化状态外,其他位点始终维持甲基化状态。推测其表达的变化可能是胚胎基因组激活有关。以上研究表明,AID基因T-DMR的低甲基化与其表达存在一定的相关性。通过免疫荧光检测发现,从卵母细胞成熟期到桑椹胚期,AID蛋白都是均匀分布于细胞核和细胞质中。而囊胚时期大量AID蛋白集中于内细胞团,这可能对于内细胞团多能性的维持起重要作用。综上所述,牛卵母细胞成熟中积累的AID作用于受精过程,其启动子区的DNA去甲基化与AID基因的表达有关,胚胎基因组激活后AID基因的表达可能与胚胎发育有关。     

抗肿瘤药物对小鼠早期胚胎发育的影响

表观遗传修饰在基因表达和克隆胚胎的早期发育方面有重要作用.表现遗传修饰至少发生在两个关键时期--配子形成期和植入前胚胎,如果在此期间发生异常,则会导致胚胎的死亡及出生后各种疾病的发生.其中DNA的甲基化是最重要的一种表观遗传修饰类型,DNA甲基化在哺乳动物发育过程中起关键作用.综述几种类型抗肿瘤药物作用机制——其使胚胎的DNA甲基化降低,引起转录活性降低,进而导致胚胎发育停滞.     

Transient DNMT1 suppression reveals hidden heritable marks in the genome

Genome-wide demethylation and remethylation of DNA during early embryogenesis is essential for development. Imprinted germline differentially methylated domains (gDMDs) established by sex-specific methylation in either male or female germ cells, must escape these dynamic changes and sustain precise inheritance of both methylated and unmethylated parental alleles. To identify other, gDMD-like sequences with the same epigenetic inheritance properties, we used a modified embryonic stem (ES) cell line that emulates the early embryonic demethylation and remethylation waves. Transient DNMT1 suppression revealed gDMD-like sequences requiring continuous DNMT1 activity to sustain a highly methylated state. Remethylation of these sequences was also compromised in vivo in a mouse model of transient DNMT1 loss in the preimplantation embryo. These novel regions, possessing heritable epigenetic features similar to imprinted-gDMDs are required for normal physiological and developmental processes and when disrupted are associated with disorders such as cancer and autism spectrum disorders. This study presents new perspectives on DNA methylation heritability during early embryo development that extend beyond conventional imprinted-gDMDs.     

DNA methylation and demethylation in mammals

Cell type-specific DNA methylation patterns are established during mammalian development and maintained in adult somatic cells. Understanding how these patterns of 5-methylcytosine are established and maintained requires the elucidation of mechanisms for both DNA methylation and demethylation. The enzymes involved in the de novo methylation of DNA and the maintenance of the resulting methylation patterns have been fairly well characterized. However, important remaining challenges are to understand how DNA methylation systems function in vivo and in the context of chromatin. In addition, the enzymes and mechanisms for demethylation remain to be elucidated. There is still no consensus as to how active enzymatic demethylation is achieved in mammalian cells, but recent studies implicate base excision repair for genome-wide DNA demethylation in germ cells and early embryos.     

Methylation dynamics of repetitive DNA elements in the mouse germ cell lineage

Repetitive DNA elements account for a substantial fraction of the mammalian genome. Many are subject to DNA methylation, which is known to undergo dynamic change during mouse germ cell development. We found that repeat sequences of three different classes retain high levels of methylation at E12.5, when methylation is erased from many single-copy genes. Maximal demethylation of repeats was seen later in development and at different times in male and female germ cells. At none of the time points examined (E12.5, E15.5, and E17.5) did we see complete demethylation, suggesting that methylation patterns on repeats may be passed on from one generation to the next. In male germ cells, we observed a de novo methylation event resulting in complete methylation of all the repeats in the interval between E15.5 and E17.5, which was not seen in females. These results suggest that repeat sequences undergo coordinate changes in methylation during germ cell development and give further insights into germ cell reprogramming in mice.     

In embryonic stem cells, ZFP57/KAP1 recognize a methylated hexanucleotide to affect chromatin and DNA methylation of imprinting control regions

The maintenance of H3K9 and DNA methylation at imprinting control regions (ICRs) during early embryogenesis is key to the regulation of imprinted genes. Here, we reveal that ZFP57, its cofactor KAP1, and associated effectors bind selectively to the H3K9me3-bearing, DNA-methylated allele of ICRs in ES cells. KAP1 deletion induces a loss of heterochromatin marks at ICRs, whereas deleting ZFP57 or DNMTs leads to ICR DNA demethylation. Accordingly, we find that ZFP57 and KAP1 associated with DNMTs and hemimethylated DNA-binding NP95. Finally, we identify the methylated TGCCGC hexanucleotide as the motif that is recognized by ZFP57 in all ICRs and in several tens of additional loci, several of which are at least ZFP57-dependently methylated in ES cells. These results significantly advance our understanding of imprinting and suggest a general mechanism for the protection of specific loci against the wave of DNA demethylation that affects the mammalian genome during early embryogenesis.     

DNA methylation dynamics during the mammalian life cycle

DNA methylation is dynamically remodelled during the mammalian life cycle through distinct phases of reprogramming and de novo methylation. These events enable the acquisition of cellular potential followed by the maintenance of lineage-restricted cell identity, respectively, a process that defines the life cycle through successive generations. DNA methylation contributes to the epigenetic regulation of many key developmental processes including genomic imprinting, X-inactivation, genome stability and gene regulation. Emerging sequencing technologies have led to recent insights into the dynamic distribution of DNA methylation during development and the role of this epigenetic mark within distinct genomic contexts, such as at promoters, exons or imprinted control regions. Additionally, there is a better understanding of the mechanistic basis of DNA demethylation during epigenetic reprogramming in primordial germ cells and during pre-implantation development. Here, we discuss our current understanding of the developmental roles and dynamics of this key epigenetic system.     

Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation Dynamics during Early Human Development

DNA methylation is globally reprogrammed during mammalian preimplantation development, which is critical for normal development. Recent reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) studies suggest that the methylome dynamics are essentially conserved between human and mouse early embryos. RRBS is known to cover 5–10% of all genomic CpGs, favoring those contained within CpG-rich regions. To obtain an unbiased and more complete representation of the methylome during early human development, we performed whole genome bisulfite sequencing of human gametes and blastocysts that covered>70% of all genomic CpGs. We found that the maternal genome was demethylated to a much lesser extent in human blastocysts than in mouse blastocysts, which could contribute to an increased number of imprinted differentially methylated regions in the human genome. Global demethylation of the paternal genome was confirmed, but SINE-VNTR-Alu elements and some other tandem repeat-containing regions were found to be specifically protected from this global demethylation. Furthermore, centromeric satellite repeats were hypermethylated in human oocytes but not in mouse oocytes, which might be explained by differential expression of de novo DNA methyltransferases. These data highlight both conserved and species-specific regulation of DNA methylation during early mammalian development. Our work provides further information critical for understanding the epigenetic processes underlying differentiation and pluripotency during early human development.     

Continuing primordial germ cell differentiation in the mouse embryo is a cell-intrinsic program sensitive to DNA methylation

The initial cohort of mammalian gametes is established by the proliferation of primordial germ cells in the early embryo. Primordial germ cells first appear in extraembyronic tissues and subsequently migrate to the developing gonad. Soon after they arrive in the gonad, the germ cells cease dividing and undertake sexually dimorphic patterns of development. Male germ cells arrest mitotically, while female germ cells directly enter meiotic prophase I. These sex-specific differentiation events are imposed upon a group of sex-common differentiation events that are shared by XX and XY germ cells. We have studied the appearance of GCNA1, a postmigratory sex-common germ cell marker, in cultures of premigratory germ cells to investigate how this differentiation program is regulated. Cultures in which proliferation was either inhibited or stimulated displayed a similar extent of differentiation as controls, suggesting that some differentiation events are the result of a cell-intrinsic program and are independent of cell proliferation. We also found that GCNA1 expression was accelerated by agents which promote DNA demethylation or histone acetylation. These results suggest that genomic demethylation of proliferative phase primordial germ cells is a mechanism by which germ cell maturation is coordinated.     

Developmental acquisition of genome-wide DNA methylation occurs prior to meiosis in male germ cells

The development of germ cells is a highly ordered process that begins during fetal growth and is completed in the adult. Epigenetic modifications that occur in germ cells are important for germ cell function and for post-fertilization embryonic development. We have previously shown that male germ cells in the adult mouse have a highly distinct epigenetic state, as revealed by a unique genome-wide pattern of DNA methylation. Although it is known that these patterns begin to be established during fetal life, it is not known to what extent DNA methylation is modified during spermatogenesis. We have used restriction landmark genomic scanning (RLGS) and other techniques to examine DNA methylation at multiple sites across the genome during postnatal germ cell development in the mouse. Although a significant proportion of the distinct germ cell pattern is acquired prior to the type A spermatogonial stage, we find that both de novo methylation and demethylation occur during spermatogenesis, mainly in spermatogonia and spermatocytes in early meiotic prophase I. Alterations include predominantly non-CpG island sequences from both unique loci and repetitive elements. These modifications are progressive and are almost exclusively completed by the end of the pachytene spermatocyte stage. These studies better define the developmental timing of genome-wide DNA methylation pattern acquisition during male germ cell development.     

Embryonic stem-cell culture as a tool for developmental cell biology

The cell biology of the early processes of mammalian embryogenesis, such as germ-layer formation, has been technically challenging to study owing to the size and accessibility of mammalian embryos. Embryonic stem cells, which can generate the three germ layers in vitro, are useful for studying embryogenesis at the cellular level. So, how can the study of embryonic stem cells and their differentiation provide a deeper understanding of the cell biology of early development?