噬菌体的"关闭宿主"功能

噬菌体基因组编码产生某些特殊的蛋白质分子,可与宿主菌生长、代谢的重要调控性蛋白质结合,并使其钝化,从而阻断宿主的生长与繁殖,将宿主菌大分子合成机制和能量装置转向噬菌体自身的复制与增殖。目前研究所获得的有关噬菌体“关闭宿主”功能的证据,主要涉及噬菌体编码的某些蛋白质分子与宿主菌的DNA复制及转录相关因子的相互作用,而这些蛋白质-蛋白质分子间的相互作用将为我们提供新的抗菌药物或抗菌药物作用的靶点,也有助于生物系统进化关系及蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用关系的研究。     

宿主菌抗噬菌体机制的研究进展

噬菌体又称细菌病毒,是公认最丰富的微生物,也是最多样性的,这种多样性是适应所面对选择性压力例如普遍存在宿主菌的噬菌体抗性机制。噬菌体通过6步(吸附、注入、复制、转录翻译、组装和释放)侵入细菌并使之裂解,但是当噬菌体感染细菌,就会面临细菌抗噬菌体的机制,宿主菌能够进化出多种抗噬菌体的机制来避免噬菌体的侵染和裂解。本文就对宿主菌抗噬菌体各种机制作一综述。     

裂解或溶源-细菌遭遇噬菌体后的命运抉择

噬菌体是地球上数量最丰富的有机体,其在自然生态系统的塑造和细菌进化驱动中发挥着至关重要的作用。在与宿主的相互斗争中,噬菌体可以选择以下2种方式决定其与宿主的命运：（1）裂解：通过裂解宿主细胞最终大量释放噬菌体颗粒;（2）溶原：将其染色体整合到宿主细胞基因组中,与宿主建立一种潜在的互存关系。对于一些温和的噬菌体,这种倾向进一步受到感染多样性的调节,其中单一感染主要是裂解性的,而多重感染则多是溶原性的。溶原性的噬菌体不仅可以根据外界环境的理化因子,还可以通过细菌自身的群体感应系统来启动裂解-溶原开关,进而决定其宿主菌的命运。与此同时,宿主细菌在与噬菌体长时间的斗争中也进化出了针对噬菌体的手段。总而言之,噬菌体深刻影响着细菌的群落动态、基因组进化和生态系统等,而这一切都取决于噬菌体与宿主间的斗争模式（裂解/溶原性感染）。本文探讨了导致温和噬菌体对宿主菌进行裂解-溶原命运抉择的影响因素并系统性总结了细菌在面对噬菌体侵染时的应对策略的最新研究进展,以期能为噬菌体与宿主的研究提供建议和帮助。     

短小芽孢杆菌噬菌体的分离及特性

以短小芽孢杆菌(Bacillus pumilus)1037及其抗噬菌体衍生株为指示菌,从噬菌体滋生环境中分离得到10株噬菌斑形态和宿主范围不同的PP系列噬菌体,并对它们的血清型、宿主范围以及对热和对不同pH的稳定性进行了研究。结果表明,在噬菌体滋生的环境中实际存在着不同血清型和宿主范围的噬菌体群体。由PP系列噬菌体与不同宿主菌之间的关系推测,杂菌污染是噬菌体污染的导因,因而认为在工业上防治噬菌体对生产的危害必须采取综合治理措施。     

细菌的噬菌体感染抗性机制

噬菌体广泛存在于生态环境中。细菌在与噬菌体长期的共进化过程中,衍化出了多种针对噬茵体感染的抗性机制。我们从宿主菌的抑制吸附、阻止噬菌体DNA注入、切断噬菌体DNA和影响其功能及流产感染等方面,对宿主菌抵抗噬菌体感染的机制进行了综述。     

anti-CRISPR的起源、发展和应用

细菌和古菌等微生物与病毒（噬菌体）之间的生存之战是一场“军备竞赛”。细菌和古菌已经进化出多种先天和适应性的免疫系统来抵御噬菌体的入侵。噬菌体则利用不同的对抗策略来躲避这些噬菌体防御机制。CRISPR-Cas （Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR-Associated）系统就是细菌和古菌广泛编码的一种抵御噬菌体等外源遗传元件的获得性免疫系统,与此同时,噬菌体也进化出特异性的anti-CRISPR来抵抗CRISPR-Cas系统的免疫。本文系统综述了anti-CRISPR的发现过程、分类和作用机制,并展望了其潜在的应用。     

噬菌体吸附及受体结合蛋白 (RBP) 的研究进展与应用

噬菌体通过受体结合蛋白(Receptor binding protein,RBP)结合到细菌表面,其过程需要复杂的原子结构的参与和构象改变。针对噬菌体侵染,细菌发展了多种抗性机制,同时,噬菌体也进化出多种逃逸宿主抗性的机制。对噬菌体与细菌间"吸附-抗吸附-逃逸过程"的探索有助于我们理解噬菌体与细菌共进化的过程,对科学发展噬菌体治疗技术以及噬菌体的生物应用技术具有重要意义。本文概述了噬菌体吸附相关蛋白及吸附发生过程、基于RBP改变的噬菌体逃逸机制和RBP相关的生物技术研究进展。     

一株烟草青枯雷尔氏菌烈性噬菌体RS-PⅡ-1的分离及全基因组分析

分离鉴定一株侵染烟草青枯雷尔氏菌的烈性噬菌体,观察其形态特征,并进行全基因组测序与分析,为采用噬菌体疗法防治烟草青枯病提供技术储备。以烟草青枯菌TB15-15为宿主菌,从土壤中筛选分离得到噬菌体;分离得到的噬菌体经纯化浓缩,采用透射电子显微镜观察其形态特征;提取噬菌体DNA,进行全基因组高通量测序,分析其全基因组的结构特征,比较基因组分析明确其进化关系。以TB15-15为宿主菌,从长期种植烟田土壤中分离得到一株青枯雷尔氏菌烈性噬菌体。电镜观察显示,该噬菌体属于有尾噬菌体目、短尾噬菌体科。基因组全长42 042bp,GC含量为63.2%,含有46个开放阅读框,比较基因组分析确定该噬菌体为一株新的青枯雷尔氏菌烈性噬菌体,命名为RS-PⅡ-1。以烟草青枯菌为宿主菌,分离到一株新的青枯雷尔氏菌烈性噬菌体RS-PⅡ-1,明确了其形态和基因组特征,为防治青枯病的噬菌体疗法奠定基础。     

短尾噬菌体识别宿主机制的研究进展

噬菌体可以作为抗生素的替代物,用于致病菌的防控和治疗。有尾噬菌体是最常见的噬菌体类型,可以根据尾部形态的不同分为短尾噬菌体、肌尾噬菌体和长尾噬菌体3类。不同噬菌体间不仅具有明显的形态差异,其对宿主细菌的识别机制也不相同。短尾噬菌体由于其较小的基因组长度和相对简单的结构组成,成为研究宿主与噬菌体的共进化关系、以及通过基因工程改造噬菌体的良好模型。本文综述了短尾噬菌体的分类特征及不同短尾噬菌体识别宿主受体的分子机制。通过明确短尾噬菌体的识别宿主机制,有助于对相应噬菌体进行工程化改造,解决噬菌体应用中存在的关键问题,使噬菌体更广泛地应用于生物、医学与食品工业等领域中。     

一株肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体的生物学特性及全基因组分析

【背景】随着抗生素的广泛使用甚至滥用,细菌耐药性问题日益显著,利用噬菌体治疗耐药致病菌的方法重新开始被人们关注。【目的】对一株烈性肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体vB_KpnP_IME279进行生物学特性研究及生物信息学分析。【方法】以一株多重耐药的肺炎克雷伯菌为宿主菌,从医院污水中分离噬菌体,应用双层平板法检测噬菌体效价、最佳感染复数(Optimal MOI)、一步生长曲线以及裂解谱,纯化后通过透射电镜观察噬菌体形态;应用蛋白酶K/SDS法提取噬菌体全基因组,使用Illumina MiSeq测序平台进行噬菌体全基因组测序,测序后对噬菌体全基因组序列进行组装、注释、进化和比较基因组学分析。【结果】分离到一株新的肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体,命名为vB_KpnP_IME279;其最佳感染复数为0.1,一步生长曲线显示潜伏期为20 min,平均裂解量140 PFU/cell,电镜观察显示该噬菌体属于短尾噬菌体科(Podoviridae)。基因组测序表明,噬菌体基因组全长为42 518 bp,(G+C)mol%含量为59.3%。BLASTn比对结果表明,该噬菌体与目前已知噬菌体的相似性较低,基因组仅70%区域与已知噬菌体有同源性。构建噬菌体主要衣壳蛋白的基因进化树,分析了噬菌体IME279与其他短尾科噬菌体的进化关系,结果表明该噬菌体是短尾科噬菌体的一名新成员。【结论】分离鉴定了一株新的肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体,进行了生物学特性、全基因组测序和生物信息学分析,为研究肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体与宿主之间的相互作用关系以及治疗多重耐药细菌感染奠定了基础。     

工业微生物的噬菌体感染与防治策略

以细菌为基础的生物技术在蓬勃发展的同时也不断受到噬菌体感染的威胁,噬菌体感染已成为微生物发酵过程中的一个顽疾,其实质是噬菌体与细菌之间复杂的共进化关系。在漫长的进化过程中,噬菌体已经形成了多种针对细菌抗性系统的逃逸机制。合理的工厂设计、菌株的轮换策略和传统的基因工程方法能在一定程度上降低噬菌体感染的风险,但仍然无法避免。基于CRISPR-Cas系统的防治策略仅需噬菌体的序列信息就可以理性设计噬菌体抗性菌株,且可以通过叠加效应不断增强菌种抗性,从而避免噬菌体的逃逸;群体感应信号分子则可以从整体水平上调节细菌的噬菌体抗性。这些新发现为噬菌体感染问题的解决带了新的希望,而噬菌体基因组编辑技术和合成生物学的快速发展则将进一步加深人们对噬菌体感染防治领域的认识。     

When a virus is not a parasite: the beneficial effects of prophages on bacterial fitness

Most organisms on the planet have viruses that infect them. Viral infection may lead to cell death, or to a symbiotic relationship where the genomes of both virus and host replicate together. In the symbiotic state, both virus and cell potentially experience increased fitness as a result of the other. The viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages (or phages), well exemplify the symbiotic relationships that can develop between viruses and their host. In this review, we will discuss the many ways that prophages, which are phage genomes integrated into the genomes of their hosts, influence bacterial behavior and virulence.     

Distribution of the human faecal bacterium Bacteroides fragilis, its bacteriophages and their relationship to current sewage pollution indicators in bathing water

Although several bacteria are currently used as possible indicators of human pathogens in sewage-polluted sea water, they are often viewed as inadequate and especially inadequate as indicators of viral pathogens. This study investigates the distribution of Bacteroides fragilis and closely related Bacteroides spp. and their associated bacteriophages in sea water frequently used for recreational purposes. These organisms may provide a potentially more appropriate indicator. Bacteroides fragilis is one of about 10 species which are loosely placed together in the 'B. fragilis' group. Samples down-current from a sewage outfall were examined for the presence of B. fragilis group organisms and associated bacteriophages. Numbers were correlated with current bacterial and possible viral indicators at these sites. These B. fragilis group isolates were used as hosts to successfully isolate bacteriophages. The host range of these bacteriophages was investigated. It is hoped to expand this study by using these B. fragilis group hosts and their bacteriophages to identify a more suitable, European-wide, indicator of bacterial pathogens which can also be used to detect bacteriophages which are suitable as viral indicators.     

Intestinal colonization by enteroaggregative Escherichia coli supports long-term bacteriophage replication in mice

Bacteriophages have been known to be present in the gut for many years, but studies of relationships between these viruses and their hosts in the intestine are still in their infancy. We isolated three bacteriophages specific for an enteroaggregative O104:H4 Escherichia coli (EAEC) strain responsible for diarrhoeal diseases in humans. We studied the replication of these bacteriophages in vitro and in vivo in a mouse model of gut colonization. Each bacteriophage was able to replicate in vitro in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Each bacteriophage individually reduced biofilms formed on plastic pegs and a cocktail of the three bacteriophages was found to be more efficient. The cocktail was also able to infect bacterial aggregates formed on the surface of epithelial cells. In the mouse intestine, bacteriophages replicated for at least 3 weeks, provided the host was present, with no change in host levels in the faeces. This model of stable and continuous viral replication provides opportunities for studying the long-term coevolution of virulent bacteriophages with their hosts within a mammalian polymicrobial ecosystem.     

自然环境中T4型噬菌体g23基因多样性研究进展

摘要：过去的20多年,伴随着分子生物学技术在环境微生物研究中的应用,环境中细菌和真菌群落基因多样性及与其生存环境间的关系逐渐被揭示,但对于地球上广泛存在且数量巨大的生命体-噬菌体基因多样性研究还很少。本文以编码T4型噬菌体主要壳蛋白基因g23为目标,综述了近年来T4型噬菌体在海洋、湖泊和稻田中基因多样性的研究进展。研究结果表明T4型噬菌体g23基因分布与其生存环境关系很大,许多g23基因按获取环境不同划分为几个新类群。同时文中也指出了针对环境中T4型噬菌体g23基因研究应该注意的几点问题及未来的研究发展趋势。     

Ecology of bacteriophages infecting activated sludge bacteria.

Little is known about the endemic bacteriophages of activated sludge. In this investigation 49 virus-host systems were studied by isolating co-occurring bacteria and bacteriophages from the aeration basin of a sewage treatment plant during 5 successive weeks. The phage titers were high and fluctuated during the time period. The occurrence of phage-sensitive and -resistant hosts did not depend on the presence or absence of phages. Several phage-host systems expressed variable plating efficiencies. In addition, phages with broad host ranges were observed. These results show that phages are an active part of this ecosystem and that they may exert selection pressure for phage resistance on their bacterial host populations.     

Ecology of bacteriophages infecting activated sludge bacteria.

Little is known about the endemic bacteriophages of activated sludge. In this investigation 49 virus-host systems were studied by isolating co-occurring bacteria and bacteriophages from the aeration basin of a sewage treatment plant during 5 successive weeks. The phage titers were high and fluctuated during the time period. The occurrence of phage-sensitive and -resistant hosts did not depend on the presence or absence of phages. Several phage-host systems expressed variable plating efficiencies. In addition, phages with broad host ranges were observed. These results show that phages are an active part of this ecosystem and that they may exert selection pressure for phage resistance on their bacterial host populations.     

The evolution of resistance against good and bad infections

Opportunities for genetic exchange are abundant between bacteria and foreign genetic elements (FGEs) such as conjugative plasmids, transposable elements and bacteriophages. The genetic novelty that may arise from these forms of genetic exchange is potentially beneficial to bacterial hosts, but there are also potential costs, which may be considerable in the case of phage infection. Some bacterial resistance mechanisms target both beneficial and deleterious forms of genetic exchange. Using a general epidemiological model, we explored under which conditions such resistance mechanisms may evolve. We considered a population of hosts that may be infected by FGEs that either confer a benefit or are deleterious to host fitness, and we analysed the epidemiological and evolutionary outcomes of resistance evolving under different cost/benefit scenarios. We show that the degree of co‐infection between these two types of infection is particularly important in determining the evolutionarily stable level of host resistance. We explore these results using the example of CRISPR‐Cas, a form of bacterial immunity that targets a variety of FGEs, and we show the potential role of bacteriophage infection in selecting for resistance mechanisms that in turn limit the acquisition of plasmid‐borne antibiotic resistance. Finally, beyond microbes, we discuss how endosymbiotic associations may have shaped the evolution of host immune responses to pathogens.     

Isolation and Genetic Analysis of Haloalkaliphilic Bacteriophages in a North American Soda Lake

Mono Lake is a meromictic, hypersaline, soda lake that harbors a diverse and abundant microbial community. A previous report documented the high viral abundance in Mono Lake, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis of viral DNA from lake water samples showed a diverse population based on a broad range of viral genome sizes. To better understand the ecology of bacteriophages and their hosts in this unique environment, water samples were collected between February 2001 and July 2004 for isolation of bacteriophages by using four indigenous bacterial hosts. Plaque assay results showed a differential seasonal expression of cultured bacteriophages. To reveal the diversity of uncultured bacteriophages, viral DNA from lake water samples was used to construct clone libraries. Sequence analysis of viral clones revealed homology to viral as well as bacterial proteins. Furthermore, dot blot DNA hybridization analyses showed that the uncultured viruses are more prevalent during most seasons, whereas the viral isolates (Aφ and φ2) were less prevalent, confirming the belief that uncultured viruses represent the dominant members of the community, whereas cultured isolates represent the minority species.     

前噬菌体研究进展

噬菌体是地球上最多的生物实体,一直被认为是细菌的天敌。然而随着基因组学和分子生物学等技术的快速发展,人们发现噬菌体与宿主之间存在微妙而复杂的关系。前噬菌体是指溶原性细菌内存在的整套噬菌体DNA基因组,广泛分布在细菌基因组中,对调节细菌宿主生理具有重要作用,如参与调节宿主的毒力、影响生物膜形成、赋予宿主免疫力等。有趣的是,前噬菌体可以通过“监听”细菌的群体感应来调节自身的溶原–裂解状态。近年来,一些细菌中由前噬菌体编码的抗CRISPR蛋白的发现引起了人们对前噬菌体研究的关注。因此,对前噬菌体的研究可以为改造宿主和前噬菌体提供基础理论参考。本文对前噬菌体的预测、分布、分类及功能进行了综述,以期为进一步研究噬菌体与宿主间的关系提供基础。