家禽的性别鉴定方法

现代家禽生产,祖代鸡通过释肛鉴定性别,父母代鸡以羽速（快慢羽）判定公母,而商品代鸡则以羽色自别雌雄。常规性别鉴定方法耗资费力,且慢羽基因（K）与内源病毒基因（ev-21）紧密连锁,导致慢羽鸡群免疫反应降低,成活率和产蛋性能下降。以鉴定W染色体上性连锁DNA序列或基因为基础,从分子水平上鉴定家禽性别的研究有望填补家禽性别鉴定空白。     

家禽的性别鉴定方法

现代家禽生产,祖代鸡通过翻肛鉴定性别,父母代鸡以羽速(快慢羽)判定公母,而商品代鸡则以羽色自别雌雄.常规性别鉴定方法耗资费力, 且慢羽基因(K)与内源病毒基因(ev-21)紧密连锁,导致慢羽鸡群免疫反应降低,成活率和产蛋性能下降.以鉴定W染色体上性连锁DNA序列或基因为基础,从分子水平上鉴定家禽性别的研究有望填补家禽性别鉴定空白.     

奶牛ZFY、ZFX基因片段的克隆及测序

奶牛的早期胚胎性别鉴定是奶牛胚胎分割及移植技术产生较大经济效益的前提,用PCR技术进行早期胚胎性别鉴定具有准确、快速、灵敏度高的特点.利用人和鼠的性别分化相关的DNA序列ZFY、ZFX基因序列设计的引物对公牛和母牛的染色体DNA、PCR扩增,将扩增产物定向克隆到pUC118上,获得ZFY、ZFX转化子,并测定了ZFY、ZFX基因的序列,发现两者同源性达88.2%,以此为基础可设计引物和探针,以PCR方法进行高灵敏度的奶牛性别鉴定.     

鸟类性别决定机制及性别鉴定的研究进展

鸟类的性别决定是一个多基因参与的级联调控过程。这一过程受Z染色体连锁的DMRT1基因, W染色体连锁的PKC1W和其它多种因子共同调控。本文综述了性别决定基因及其功能、性别鉴定方法等方面的研究进展。Abstract： Avian sex determination is a multiple gene regulation cascade. Genes such as the Z chromosome-linked DMRT1 gene, W chromosome-linked PKCIW gene and other factors have been demonstrated to be involved in this process. In this paper, we review the recent progress in this field. The investigation of functions of sex determinate genes and methods of sexing birds are discussed here.     

鸵鸟性别鉴定的分子标记方法

鸵鸟(Struthiocamelus)属于平胸总目鸟类,雌雄鸵鸟在性成熟前外部形态相同,很难通过外观和形态来鉴定性别,给早期分群饲养造成了很大的困难。实验利用鸵鸟羽毛提取基因组DNA,之后利用EE0.6和CHD基因中2个引物组合对3对已知性别和9只未知性别鸵鸟的性别基因片段进行特异性扩增。结果显示,这对引物组合在雄性鸵鸟的DNA中未扩增出片段,在雌性鸵鸟DNA中扩增出1条片段,可以对鸵鸟的性别作出准确鉴定,从而解决幼雏期鸵鸟难以从外貌上区分其性别的问题。     

CHD基因与非平胸鸟类性别鉴定

自1995年CHD基因被应用于鸟类性别的分子鉴定以来,非平胸类鸟类性别鉴定问题正逐步被解决,CHD基因已经成为非平胸鸟类性别鉴定最重要的分子标记。阐述和分析了CHD基因在扩增目标及引物设计、取样范围及辅助技术和所涉足的科研领域等方面的发展及现状。期望随着CHD基因研究的深入,建立起完善的基于CHD基因的鸟类性别鉴定体系,通过更广泛的应用,促使涉及鸟类性别鉴定的科学研究向着更深、更广的方向发展。     

利用PCR鉴定四川雉鹑性别

四川雉鹑是我国特有珍稀濒危雉类,为国家Ⅰ级保护动物.本文通过设计引物,扩增四川雉鹑W染色体上雌性特异基因HINTW,利用PCR产物有无对其进行性别鉴定,发现在四川雉鹑中雄性个体无阳性产物,而雌性扩增出500 bp和300 bp 2条条带.应用通用引物扩增四川雉鹑基因组CHD基因,其中雄性个体扩增出约500 bp的条带,而雌性个体则扩增出500 bp和750 bp 2条条带,通过其Z/W染色体上基因片段长度差异可进行性别鉴定.上述两种方法对9个四川雉鹑的性别鉴定结果均一致.     

荧光原位杂交技术(FISH)在鱼类遗传学研究中的应用及前景

荧光原位杂交技术（ｆｌｕｏｒｅｓｃｅｃｅｉｎｓｉｔｕｈｙｂｒｉｄｉｚａｔｉｏｎ,ＦＩＳＨ）是一种在分子水平上进行了细胞遗传学研究的得力工具,本文综述了近年来ＦＩＳＨ技术在鱼类的基因定位,性别鉴定,染色体变异及种间杂交等研究中的应用;并将此技术在鱼类的基因定位,早期性别鉴定,染色体重排与进化,染色体鉴别与分类及杂交鉴定等方面的应用前景作一展望。     

特异性PCR反应鉴别携带W染色体的嵌合体公鸡子代性别的研究

利用聚合酶链式反应(PCR)特异扩增家鸡W染色体高度重复序列EcoRI家族的447bp片段,作为鉴定家鸡W染色体存在的依据.4个表现型为雄性的嵌合体公鸡的精液中检测到了W染色体,通过人工授精获得嵌合体子一代.检测了其中188个雏鸡的血液,51.6%(97/188)含有W染色体,x2检验结果显示,雌雄后代符合1:1的比例,这表明在这188个成活的嵌合体子代中,基本上没有W染色体精子所产生的雏鸡,携带W染色体的精子没有将其W染色体传递到其子代雏鸡中.本研究利用PGR性别鉴定技术,从分子水平上对精液中携带W染色体的嵌合体公鸡(ZW→ZZ型)子代的性别分化作了初步的探讨。 Abstract:The W chromosome was detected in four cocks' sperms by a method based on the polymerase chain reaction which amplifies the EcoRI repeat unit of the chicken W chromosome.188 offsprings of these chimeric cocks were obtained by artificial insemination and 51.6% (97/188) was detected W chromosome in blood.The result of χ2 test suggests that the sex ratio is 1:1.It seems as if no evidence was found for skewed sex ratios of these offsprings.Therefore it seems as if the sperms with W chromosome could not contribute to these 188 offspring chicks.     

Molecular sexing in the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata

Molecular methods have been devised for sexing Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) individuals using minimal amounts of material from any stage of the life cycle. Molecular sexing methods are particularly valuable when material is obtained from pre-adult stages and sex identification based on morphological characters is not possible. These methods may also be useful for adult stage material in situations where only limited amounts or poorly preserved specimens are available. The sexing methods described here use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify sequences known to originate from the sex chromosomes of this species. One method co-amplifies homologous regions of the ITS1 ribosomal DNA from both the X and Y chromosomes. Males and females are distinguished based on the restriction fragment pattern produced after digestion of the PCR products with the restriction enzyme ApoI. A second method identifies males based on the positive amplification of a repetitive DNA sequence originating from the Y chromosome. Both methods are shown to be capable of establishing the sex identity of individuals using only minimal amounts of material from any stage of the life cycle.     

Molecular sexing of birds: A comparative review of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods

Accurate identification of sex in birds is important for the management and conservation of avian wildlife in several ways, namely in the development of population, behavioral and ecological studies, as well as in the improvement of ex situ captive breeding programs. In general, nestlings, juveniles and adult birds of a wide number of sexually monomorphic species cannot be sexed based on phenotypic traits. The development of molecular methodologies for avian sexing overcame these difficulties, allowing a reliable gender differentiation for these species. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods have been widely applied in molecular sexing of birds, using a large diversity of sex-linked markers. During the last 15 yrs, there was a continuous improvement in the PCR-based protocols for bird sexing, increasing the accuracy, speed and high-throughput applicability of these techniques. The recent advances in real-time PCR platforms and whole genome analysis methods provided new resources for the detection and analysis of novel specific markers and protocols. This review presents a comparative guide of classical and recent advances in PCR-based methods for avian molecular sexing, highlighting its strengths and limitations. Future research opportunities in this field are also addressed.     

Improving the reliability of molecular sexing of birds using a W-specific marker

Molecular techniques for identifying sex of birds utilize length differences between CHD-Z and CHD-W introns, but in some cases these methods can lead to sexing errors. Here we show that an additional W-specific primer can be used in conjunction with a pre-existing sexing primer pair to dramatically improve the reliability of molecular sexing methods. We illustrate the approach with American coots (Fulica americana), a species with CHD-Z polymorphism that could not be accurately sexed using traditional methods. We developed a reverse primer GWR2 designed to sit within the intron of the W chromosome and amplify a distinctively small DNA fragment that serves as a W-specific marker. Analysis of known-sex individuals indicates that this W-specific primer provides an efficient and reliable protocol to identify the sex of F. americana. The development of such sex-specific primers will likely increase the reliability of molecular sexing methods in other birds as well. Comparisons between CHD-Z alleles of coots and common moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) revealed that CHD-Z polymorphism evolved separately in these two closely related species. We discuss the implications of repeated evolution of CHD-Z polymorphisms among birds.     

Molecular sexing of monomorphic endangered Ara birds

Survival of most endangered birds may depend on breeding programs where sex identification plays an important role. Molecular sexing has shown to be a rapid and safe procedure. In this work we established sex identification of monomorphic endangered Ara birds using a chromosome W-linked DNA marker, the Chromo-helicase-DNA-Binding 1 (CHD) gene. Most birds have two CHD sex-linked genes, one W-linked (CHD-W) and one Z-linked (CHD-Z). These markers were characterized from Ara militaris and gender sex was determined by PCR and restriction analyzes. The procedure here reported was successfully applied to five different species of the genus Ara and confirmed the validity of the technique. To our knowledge, this is the first report of molecular sexing of the Ara species. This molecular sexing is currently been used in breeding programs of Ara birds.     

Evolutionary stability of sex chromosomes in snakes

Amniote vertebrates possess various mechanisms of sex determination, but their variability is not equally distributed. The large evolutionary stability of sex chromosomes in viviparous mammals and birds was believed to be connected with their endothermy. However, some ectotherm lineages seem to be comparably conserved in sex determination, but previously there was a lack of molecular evidence to confirm this. Here, we document a stability of sex chromosomes in advanced snakes based on the testing of Z-specificity of genes using quantitative PCR (qPCR) across 37 snake species (our qPCR technique is suitable for molecular sexing in potentially all advanced snakes). We discovered that at least part of sex chromosomes is homologous across all families of caenophidian snakes (Acrochordidae, Xenodermatidae, Pareatidae, Viperidae, Homalopsidae, Colubridae, Elapidae and Lamprophiidae). The emergence of differentiated sex chromosomes can be dated back to about 60 Ma and preceded the extensive diversification of advanced snakes, the group with more than 3000 species. The Z-specific genes of caenophidian snakes are (pseudo)autosomal in the members of the snake families Pythonidae, Xenopeltidae, Boidae, Erycidae and Sanziniidae, as well as in outgroups with differentiated sex chromosomes such as monitor lizards, iguanas and chameleons. Along with iguanas, advanced snakes are therefore another example of ectothermic amniotes with a long-term stability of sex chromosomes comparable with endotherms.     

New and improved molecular sexing methods for museum bird specimens

We present two new avian molecular sexing techniques for nonpasserine and passerine birds (Neognathae), which are more suitable for use with museum specimens than earlier methods. The technique for nonpasserines is based on a new primer (M5) which, in combination with the existing P8 primer, targets a smaller amplicon in the CHD1 sex-linked gene than previously. Primers targeting ATP5A1, an avian sex-linked gene not previously used for sex identification, were developed for passerines. Comprehensive testing across species demonstrated that both primer pairs sex a range of different species within their respective taxonomic groups. Rigorous evaluation of each method within species showed that these permitted sexing of specimens dating from the 1850s. For corn bunting museum specimens, the ATP5A1 method sexed 98% of 63 samples (1857-1966). The M5/P8 CHD1 method was similarly successful, sexing 90% of 384 moorhen specimens from six different museum collections (1855-2001). In contrast, the original P2/P8 CHD1 sexing method only identified the sex of less than half of 111 museum moorhen samples. In addition to dried skin samples, these methods may be useful for other types of material that yield degraded or damaged DNA, and are hence potential new sexing tools for avian conservation genetics, population management and wildlife forensics.     

Cytogenetic analysis of California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) chromosomes: comparison with chicken (Gallus gallus) macrochromosomes

The California condor is the largest flying bird in North America and belongs to a group of New World vultures. Recovering from a near fatal population decline, and currently with only 197 extant individuals, the species remains listed as endangered. Very little genetic information exists for this species, although sexing methods employing chromosome analysis or W-chromosome specific amplification is routinely applied for the management of this monomorphic species. Keeping in mind that genetic conditions like chondrodystrophy have been identified, preliminary steps were undertaken in this study to understand the genome organization of the condor. This included an extensive cytogenetic analysis that provided (i) a chromosome number of 80 (with a likelihood of an extra pair of microchromosomes), and (ii) information on the centromeres, telomeres and nucleolus organizer regions. Further, a comparison between condor and chicken macrochromosomes was obtained by using individual chicken chromosome specific paints 1-9 and Z and W on condor metaphase spreads. Except for chromosomes 4 and Z, each of the chicken (GGA) macrochromosomes painted a single condor (GCA) macrochromosome. GGA4 paint detected complete homology with two condor chromosomes, viz., GCA4 and GCA9 providing additional proof that the latter are ancestral chromosomes in the birds. The chicken Z chromosome showed correspondence with both Z and W in the condor. The homology suggests that the condor sex chromosomes have not completely differentiated during evolution, which is unlike the majority of the non-ratites studied up till now. Overall, the study provides detailed cytogenetic and basic comparative information on condor chromosomes. These findings significantly advance the effort to study the chondrodystrophy that is responsible for over ten percent mortality in the condor.     

Cytogenetic analysis of three genetic sexing strains of Ceratitits capitata

Summary Polytene chromosomes of three genetic sexing strains of Ceratitis capitata were analyzed. The genetic sexing mechanism is based on a pupal color dimorphism (white-brown) and is the result of a reciprocal translocation between the Y chromosome and the autosome bearing the w locus (white pupal case). The analyzed polytene chromosomes were derived from two different pupal tissues, the orbital bristle and fat body cells. The Y chromosome is visible in both tissues, while the autosomes present a different banding pattern. Based on these features, the autosome breakpoints in the three Y; autosome translocations were mapped, and the homology of the translocated autosome in both tissues was established. In addition, the location of the break-points was compared to the stability of these three strains.