脊椎动物性别决定和分化的分子机制研究进展

哺乳类性别决定是多种转录因子和生长因子相继表达和相互调控的结果。SRY的表达启动雄性通路并诱导下游雄性特异基因SOX9、AMH等的表达。FOXL2在雌性未分化性腺表达,WNT-4和DAX1也在雌性性别决定或分化时期表达,表明雌性通路也是受特定基因调控的,而并非“默认通路”。鸟类的性别也是由遗传基因决定的,EFT1(雌性)和DMRT1(雄性)可能是性别决定候选基因。爬行类为温度性别决定的典型,温度可能通过调节雌激素水平和控制性别特异遗传基因表达决定性别。大部分两栖类性别受环境因素影响,但发现DMRT1和DAX1可能与其精巢发育有关。鱼类性别决定和分化方式差异很大,多种因素(遗传基因、环境因素、类固醇激素等)参与了这一过程。从青Q鳉Y染色体定位克隆的DMY,被认为是第一个非哺乳类脊椎动物雄性性别决定基因。所有这些表明脊椎动物性别决定和分化机制是多样化的。     

小鼠性别决定过程中性腺体细胞分化的调控

哺乳动物的性腺由生殖细胞和体细胞共同形成,性别决定前的性腺具有双向分化的潜能,性腺中体细胞的分化决定其发育为睾丸或卵巢。这一分化过程受到多种因子的精细调控。其中SRY、SOX9、SOX3、SOX8、SOX10、FGF9/FGFR2、PGD2、AMH和DMRT1等参与睾丸的发育和分化,而FOXL2、CTNNB1、RSPO1、WNT4、Follistatin、ERα/β和BMP2则在卵巢发育过程中发挥关键作用。如果这些分子调控网络受到内源性或外源性因子的破坏,则会引起两性发育紊乱,甚至导致雄性向雌性或雌性向雄性的性别逆转。本文以小鼠模型为例,阐述了在性别决定过程中体细胞命运决定以及谱系分化的分子调控网络。     

鸟类性别决定候选基因在性反转鸡胚中的表达

DMRT1、PKCIW和FET1是鸟类性别决定过程中重要的候选基因。以芳香化酶抑制剂处理的鸡胚为实验材料, 对这3个基因的表达变化进行了研究。结果表明, 在整个性别决定关键时期(E4.5 ~ E10.5), DMRT1在雄性的表达量显著高于雌性, 并且在ZW性反转鸡胚中表达大幅上升, 表明DMRT1的上调表达是与睾丸形成相关的。PKCIW基因在雌性特异表达并在性反转鸡胚表达上升, 这可能与其特殊作用模式有关, 即使性反转鸡胚PKCIW代偿性的表达升高, 却也未能阻止睾丸的形成。此外, FET1为雌性特异表达, 但在性反转鸡胚中表达无变化。综上, 实验结果支持了DMRT1是鸟类睾丸发育决定因子的假说。     

哺乳动物性别决定基因的研究进展

哺乳动物的性别发育经历了个连续不同时期;受精时期性染色体的构建（XY或XX）;性腺发育和分化（精巢或卵巢）;获得恰当的性别表现型（雄性或雌性）。人们已经发现睾丸决定因子（Testis determining factor）就是SRY（Sex determining region on Y chromosome）,并逐渐确定了其他与性别决定和性别反转相关的基因,如SOX9,DAX1,SF1,WT1,GATA-4等。综述了与哺乳动物性别控制有关的基因研究进展。     

鸡性别决定机制及相关基因研究进展

鸡性别决定虽然同哺乳动物一样受遗传控制,但其性染色体组成为ZZ／ZW,同哺乳动物相反呈现雌异型,并且鸡性腺性别分化同一些低等脊椎动物一样易受性激素影响。目前参照哺乳动物性别决定相关基因已获得了一些鸡同源基因序列(AMH,SF1,DAX1,SOX9)和3个可能与鸡性别决定有重要关联的候选基因(DMRT1,ASW和FET1)。对这些基因的表达模式及其在层次调控中的功能比较分析结果显示,鸡性别决定的遗传机制同其它脊椎动物相对一致,但也有明显的不同。     

中华鳖Dmrt1基因在雄性性别分化中的功能分析

在大部分脊椎动物中,Dmrt1基因在雄性性别决定和性腺分化中起重要的调控作用.本文通过慢病毒-Dmrt1-sh RNA干扰和Dmrt1-OE过表达载体系统的构建,成功实现了Dmrt1基因在中华鳖胚胎发育过程中的高效异常表达,以探讨Dmrt1在中华鳖雄性性别分化中的功能.结果显示,经过Dmrt1-sh RNA干扰处理后的ZZ胚胎,32.0%发育成雌性(生理)个体,而经过Dmrt1-OE过表达处理后,25.5%的ZW胚胎发育成雄性(生理)个体.苏木素/伊红(HE)染色、q PCR和免疫组化分析表明,Dmrt1基因敲低后,ZZ胚胎性腺外形和组织结构明显雌性化,雄性特异性基因Amh和Sox9表达显著降低,雌性特异性基因Cyp19a1和Foxl2表达则显著上升,出现雄向雌的性逆转现象;而Dmrt1过表达后的ZW胚胎性腺则向睾丸分化,Amh和Sox9表达急剧上调,Cyp19a1和Foxl2表达显著下降,呈现雌转雄性逆转现象.上述研究表明,Dmrt1基因在中华鳖早期雄性性别形成过程中是必需的,且它的异位表达能够单独启动雄性分化,是中华鳖雄性性别分化的关键因子.     

雌激素对中华鳖性腺分化及DMRT1、SOX9基因表达的影响

中华鳖（Pelodiscus sinensis）性别决定的方式一直存在较大的争议,分子机制更是不清楚。在大部分脊椎动物中,雌激素在性别决定和性腺分化中扮演重要的调控作用。实验通过对性别分化前胚胎进行雌二醇（E2）和芳香化酶抑制剂（AI）处理,研究雌激素在中华鳖性腺分化中的作用及机理。实验结果显示,与对照组（雌性比例49%）相比,E2处理组中雌性中华鳖仔鳖比例显著增加,高达92.3%;而在AI处理组中,雌性比例显著下调至13.1%。HE染色分析表明,ZZ（雄性）和ZW（雌性）胚胎分别经过E2和AI处理后,ZZ和ZW性腺结构呈现明显的雌性化和雄性化特征。同时,通过RT-PCR和免疫荧光染色发现,E2能显著降低雄性性别关键因子DMRT1和SOX9 mRNA和蛋白表达水平;AI则表现相反的调节作用。综上所述,雌激素通过抑制雄性性别关键因子DMRT1和SOX9的表达来抑制雄性分化,促进雌性分化,揭示雌激素在中华鳖雌性性别分化中起着重要的调控作用。       

温度对爬行动物性别的影响

性别的分化可以同时看作是遗传学、胚胎学、内分泌学和生态学的问题。一般高等动物的胚胎性别发育包括下述三个步骤:1.遗传性别的决定,由精卵双方所携带的性染色体结合产生;2.性腺性别的出现,未分化的性腺发育成睾丸或卵巢;3.性腺性别转变为个体表现型性别。正常情况下,绝大多数的脊椎动物性别表现往往是由性染色体决定,即xx或zw决定雌性,xy或zz决定雄性。但是,有些爬行动物的性别表现并不完全如此,它还受着环境因素的影响。在本文中,作者将对温度与爬行动物性别表现的关系进行初步地探讨。有趣的发现     

黄河鲤性别决定时间和相关基因表达研究

鱼类性别决定和分化机制极为复杂,通过性腺组织切片鉴定得出黄河鲤从未分化性腺发育为Ⅱ期精巢、卵巢的时间为受精后第40天到第80天。选取一些可能参与黄河鲤性别决定分化相关的基因（amh、ar、cyp19a、cyp19b、dax1、dmrt1、er、foxl2、nobox、sox9a、sox9b、zp2）进行实时荧光定量PCR分析各个基因在受精后40d、45d、50d、55d、65d和80d的表达情况。结果显示性别决定相关基因在50d都有高表达,推测45-50 d为性别决定的关键时间。ar、amh、dax1、dmrt1、sox9a、sox9b六个基因在80d雄性表达量升高,且雄性明显高于雌性,推测这些基因参与精巢分化发育过程。cyp19a、cyp19b、foxl2、nobox、zp2五个基因在80d雌性表达升高,且高于雄性,推测其可能参与卵巢分化发育。     

Rspo1对雌性脊椎动物性别分化的功能

长期以来雌性脊椎动物的性别分化被认为是一个“默认”的程序.但是近些年研究发现,Rspo1基因的突变或缺失可导致哺乳动物XX型个体性反转为雄性.Rspo1在鱼类、两栖爬行类、鸟类和哺乳类动物性腺发育的不同阶段表达,其表达在雌雄个体性别分化时期有差异,是潜在的性别调控基因.Rspo1在性别发育早期可通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路调控性腺分化相关因子的表达,影响原始生殖细胞分裂增殖、细胞周期和生长发育,参与调控性腺中体细胞的分化.本文总结了近年来Rspo1在脊椎动物中的表达调控及其在雌性性别决定方面功能的研究进展.     

Sex determination and sexual differentiation in the avian model

The sex of birds is determined by the inheritance of sex chromosomes (ZZ male and ZW female). Genes carried on one or both of these sex chromosomes control sexual differentiation during embryonic life, producing testes in males (ZZ) and ovaries in females (ZW). This minireview summarizes our current understanding of avian sex determination and gonadal development. Most recently, it has been shown that sex is cell autonomous in birds. Evidence from gynandromorphic chickens (male on one side, female on the other) points to the likelihood that sex is determined directly in each cell of the body, independently of, or in addition to, hormonal signalling. Hence, sex-determining genes may operate not only in the gonads, to produce testes or ovaries, but also throughout cells of the body. In the chicken, as in other birds, the gonads develop into ovaries or testes during embryonic life, a process that must be triggered by sex-determining genes. This process involves the Z-linked DMRT1 gene. If DMRT1 gene activity is experimentally reduced, the gonads of male embryos (ZZ) are feminized, with ovarian-type structure, downregulation of male markers and activation of female markers. DMRT1 is currently the best candidate gene thought to regulate gonadal sex differentiation. However, if sex is cell autonomous, DMRT1 cannot be the master regulator, as its expression is confined to the urogenital system. Female development in the avian model appears to be shared with mammals; both the FOXL2 and RSPO1/WNT4 pathways are implicated in ovarian differentiation.     

Hens,cocks and avian sex determination: A quest for genes on Z or W?

The sex of an individual is generally determined genetically by genes on one of the two sex chromosomes. In mammals, for instance, the presence of the male-specific Y chromosome confers maleness, whereas in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans it is the number of X chromosomes that matters. For birds (males ZZ, females ZW), however, the situation remains unclear. The recent discovery that the Z-linked DMRT1 gene, which is conserved across phyla as a gene involved in sexual differentiation, is expressed early in male development suggests that it might be the number of Z chromosomes that regulate sex in birds. On the other hand, the recent identification of the first protein unique to female birds, encoded by the W-linked PKCIW gene, and the observation that it is expressed early in female gonads, suggests that the W chromosome plays a role in avian sexual differentiation. Clearly defining the roles of the DMRT1 and PKC1W genes in gonadal development, and ultimately determining whether avian sex is dependent on Z or W, will require transgenic experiments.     

Freemartin in the amphibian Pleurodeles waltl: parabiosis between individuals from opposite sex triggers both germ and somatic cells alterations during female gonad development

Wild type embryos of the newt Pleurodeles waltl were used to realize parabiosis, a useful model to study the effect of endogenous circulating hormones on gonad development. The genotypic sex of each parabiont (ZZ male or ZW female) was determined early from the analysis of the sex chromosome borne marker peptidase-1. In ZZ/ZZ and ZW/ZW associations, gonads develop according to genetic sex. In ZZ/ZW associations, the ZZ gonads differentiate as normal testes while ZW gonads development shows numerous alterations. At the beginning of sex differentiation, these ZW gonads possess a reduced number of germ cells and a reduced expression of steroidogenic factor 1 and P450-aromatase mRNAs when compared to gonads from ZW/ZW associations. During gonad differentiation, conversely to the control situation, these germ cells do not enter meiosis as corroborated by chromatin status and absence of the meiosis entry marker DMC1; the activity of the estradiol-producing enzyme P450-aromatase is as low as in ZZ gonads. At adulthood, no germ cells are observed on histological sections, consistently with the absence of VASA expression. At this stage, the testis-specific marker DMRT1 is expressed only in ZZ gonads, suggesting that the somatic compartment of the ZW gonad is not masculinized. So, when exposed to ZZ hormones, ZW gonads reach the undifferentiated status but the ovary differentiation does not occur. This gonad is inhibited by a process affecting both somatic and germ cells. Additionally, the ZW gonad inhibition does not occur in the case of an exogenous estradiol treatment of larvae.     

Conserved synteny between the chicken Z sex chromosome and human chromosome 9 includes the male regulatory gene DMRT1: a comparative (re)view on avian sex determination

Sex-determination mechanisms in birds and mammals evolved independently for more than 300 million years. Unlike mammals, sex determination in birds operates through a ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system, in which the female is the heterogametic sex. However, the molecular mechanism remains to be elucidated. Comparative gene mapping revealed that several genes on human chromosome 9 (HSA 9) have homologs on the chicken Z chromosome (GGA Z), indicating the common ancestry of large parts of GGA Z and HSA 9. Based on chromosome homology maps, we isolated a Z-linked chicken ortholog of DMRT1, which has been implicated in XY sex reversal in humans. Its location on the avian Z and within the sex-reversal region on HSA 9p suggests that DMRT1 represents an ancestral dosage-sensitive gene for vertebrate sex-determination. Z dosage may be crucial for male sexual differentiation/determination in birds.     

Sex-specific expression of an evolutionarily conserved male regulatory gene, DMRT1, in birds

Based on its Z-sex-chromosomal location and its structural homology to male sexual regulatory factors in humans (DMRT1 and DMRT2), Drosophila (Dsx), and Caenorhabditis elegans (Mab-3), chicken DMRT1 is an excellent candidate for a testis-determining factor in birds. The data we present provide further strong support for this hypothesis. By whole mount in situ hybridization chicken DMRT1 is expressed at higher levels in the male than in the female genital ridges during early stages of embryogenesis. Its expression becomes testis-specific after onset of sexual differentiation. Northern blot and RT PCR analysis showed that in adult birds DMRT1 is expressed exclusively in the testis. We propose that two gene dosages are required for testis formation in ZZ males, whereas expression from a single Z chromosome in ZW females leads to female sexual differentiation.