Transit Passage and Pollution Control in Straits under the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention

This contribution examines and points out the inadequacy of the provisions of Part III of the 1982 Law of the Sea (LOS) Convention to combat marine pollution in straits used for international navigation without infringing the right to transit passage of all user states. It stresses that it is the environmental obligation of all user and strait states to protect the marine environment of straits used for international navigation. To this end, this paper proposes that Part III of the 1982 LOS Convention be reconsidered and a "Guarantee of Freedom of Navigation--Environmental Impact Statement" be adopted by user and strait states.     

Governance Profiles and the Management of the Uses of Large Marine Ecosystems

Interest in the management of the environment and its resources on an ecosystem basis has been increasing in both terrestrial and marine contexts. The emergence of the concept of large marine ecosystems (LMEs) is one important example of this development. LMEs have been examined through five linked modules: (1) productivity of the ecosystem; (2) fish and fisheries; (3) pollution and ecosystem health; (4) socioeconomic conditions; and (5) governance. The first three focus on natural systems, while the last two concentrate on human interactions with those systems. To date the first three have received the greatest attention but as attention has turned to development and implementation of management strategies, greater consideration has being given to the human dimension of LMEs represented by the latter two modules. This article focuses on governance, a matter that is of fundamental importance because it shapes the pattern of human use of the natural environment. Efforts to promote ecosystem-based management occur within different governance frameworks; these frameworks and their associated dynamics must be understood in the same fashion that the structure and interplay of the elements of the natural ecosystem need to be comprehended. Just as natural science employs baseline studies to gauge change over time, this paper asserts the need for similar studies relevant to governance aspects of ecosystem use. After identifying and describing the roles of three major and generic governance institutions, we suggest the development in each LME of a governance profile that outlines and analyzes the existing governance framework. Moreover, we propose to consider governance change over time to assess whether such shifts represent movement in the direction of greater ecosystem focus.     

Coral reef conservation in Bali in light of international best practice,a literature review

Bali, Indonesia sits within the coral triangle and is internationally recognised for its high coral reef diversity. The health of Bali’s marine ecosystems has declined in recent decades, and this is thought to be due to threats from climate change, destructive fishing practices, pollution, outbreaks coral eating invertebrates, coral disease and unsustainable tourism. As a response, multiple conservation strategies have been introduced by the island’s communities, non-government organisations and governments, with the aim of preventing further decline, as well as restoring already degraded coral reefs. This literature review provides an in-depth analysis of the tools used to conserve Bali’s coral reefs, and compares them to those used in other countries. In light of international ‘best practice’ in coral reef conservation, this review makes suggestions on how Bali could better conserve its coral reef ecosystems. These include (1) increasing its designation of official Marine Protected Areas (MPAS) and strengthening management of existing ones, (2) creating an MPA network, (3) substantially reducing marine plastic pollution, (4) continuing artificial reef construction in degraded habitats, (5) continuing to develop Bali as an ecotourism destination, (6) increasing engagement in global science to inform marine conservation decision-making, and (7) developing more marine monitoring programmes.     

Ecological indicators to capture the effects of fishing on biodiversity and conservation status of marine ecosystems

IndiSeas (“Indicators for the Seas”) is a collaborative international working group that was established in 2005 to evaluate the status of exploited marine ecosystems using a suite of indicators in a comparative framework. An initial shortlist of seven ecological indicators was selected to quantify the effects of fishing on the broader ecosystem using several criteria (i.e., ecological meaning, sensitivity to fishing, data availability, management objectives and public awareness). The suite comprised: (i) the inverse coefficient of variation of total biomass of surveyed species, (ii) mean fish length in the surveyed community, (iii) mean maximum life span of surveyed fish species, (iv) proportion of predatory fish in the surveyed community, (v) proportion of under and moderately exploited stocks, (vi) total biomass of surveyed species, and (vii) mean trophic level of the landed catch. In line with the Nagoya Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2011–2020), we extended this suite to emphasize the broader biodiversity and conservation risks in exploited marine ecosystems. We selected a subset of indicators from a list of empirically based candidate biodiversity indicators initially established based on ecological significance to complement the original IndiSeas indicators. The additional selected indicators were: (viii) mean intrinsic vulnerability index of the fish landed catch, (ix) proportion of non-declining exploited species in the surveyed community, (x) catch-based marine trophic index, and (xi) mean trophic level of the surveyed community. Despite the lack of data in some ecosystems, we also selected (xii) mean trophic level of the modelled community, and (xiii) proportion of discards in the fishery as extra indicators. These additional indicators were examined, along with the initial set of IndiSeas ecological indicators, to evaluate whether adding new biodiversity indicators provided useful additional information to refine our understanding of the status evaluation of 29 exploited marine ecosystems. We used state and trend analyses, and we performed correlation, redundancy and multivariate tests. Existing developments in ecosystem-based fisheries management have largely focused on exploited species. Our study, using mostly fisheries independent survey-based indicators, highlights that biodiversity and conservation-based indicators are complementary to ecological indicators of fishing pressure. Thus, they should be used to provide additional information to evaluate the overall impact of fishing on exploited marine ecosystems.     

环境污染下基于最优捕获策略的近海-远海捕鱼模型的动力学性质(英文)

近年来,由于人类的过度开发,使得海洋资源(尤其是近海海洋资源)急剧下降,加上日益严重的海洋污染,给海洋资源管理带来很大的困难.为了更好的管理和利用海洋资源,本文考虑到环境污染中脉冲扩散对种群的影响,建立了一个近海-远海渔业模型,给出了正周期解存在性及平凡周期解和正周期解全局渐近稳定性的充分条件.进一步,在环境污染的情况下,给出了最优捕获策略,得到了最大持续产量和相应的捕获努力量.最后,通过数值模拟证实了我们所得的结论的正确性.     

Comparative analysis of marine ecosystems: international production modelling workshop

Understanding the drivers that dictate the productivity of marine ecosystems continues to be a globally important issue. A vast literature identifies three main processes that regulate the production dynamics of such ecosystems: biophysical, exploitative and trophodynamic. Exploring the prominence among this ‘triad’ of drivers, through a synthetic analysis, is critical for understanding how marine ecosystems function and subsequently produce fisheries resources of interest to humans. To explore this topic further, an international workshop was held on 10–14 May 2010, at the National Academy of Science''s Jonsson Center in Woods Hole, MA, USA. The workshop compiled the data required to develop production models at different hierarchical levels (e.g. species, guild, ecosystem) for many of the major Northern Hemisphere marine ecosystems that have supported notable fisheries. Analyses focused on comparable total system biomass production, functionally equivalent species production, or simulation studies for 11 different marine fishery ecosystems. Workshop activities also led to new analytical tools. Preliminary results suggested common patterns driving overall fisheries production in these ecosystems, but also highlighted variation in the relative importance of each among ecosystems.     

The emerging international regulatory framework for biotechnology

Debate about the potential risks of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to the environment or human health spurred attention to biosafety. Biosafety is associated with the safe use of GMOs and, more generally, with the introduction of non-indigenous species into natural or managed ecosystems. Biosafety regulation--the policies and procedures adopted to ensure the environmentally safe application of modern biotechnology--has been extensively discussed at various national and international forums. Much of the discussion has focused on developing guidelines, appropriate legal frameworks and, at the international level, a legally binding international biosafety protocol--the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol is one among various international instruments and treaties that regulate specific aspects relevant to agricultural biotechnology. The present article presents the main international instruments relevant to biosafety regulation, and their key provisions. While international agreements and standards provide important guidance, they leave significant room for interpretation, and flexibility for countries implementing them. Implementation of biosafety at the national level has proven to be a major challenge, particularly in developing countries, and consequently the actual functioning of the international regulatory framework for biotechnology is still in a state of flux.     

Paradox of marine protected areas: suppression of fishing may cause species loss

A number of fish and invertebrate stocks have been depleted by overexploitation in recent years. To address this, marine protected areas (MPAs) are often established to protect biodiversity and recover stocks. We analyzed the potential impact of establishing MPAs on marine ecosystems using mathematical models. We demonstrate that establishment of an MPA can sometimes result in a considerable decline, or even extinction, of a species. We focus on a prey–predator system in two patches, one exposed to fishing activity and the other protected (MPA). Our analyses reveal that the establishment of the MPA can cause a reduction in prey abundance, and even extinction of the prey. Such unintended consequences are more likely to occur if the predator species is a generalist and if the MPA is intended to protect only the predatory species. Further, a mobile predator that migrates adaptively rather than randomly is associated with a greater reduction in prey abundance.     

中国海洋生态保护制度的转型发展--从海洋保护区走向海洋生态红线区

海洋生态环境的持续恶化与生态学认知的提高使海洋生态红线区管理制度成为必然。总结了中国海洋保护区现状与存在问题;分析了发展海洋生态红线的必要性、区划原则、概念及组成体系;提出海洋保护区与海洋生态红线区可分别籍空间统一性、决策统一性、工作内容与管理要求的一致性相关联,海洋保护区的核心、关键和重要因素与海洋生态红线的范围划定、宏观应对策略制定、微观管理规定一一对应。对海洋保护区管理向海洋生态红线区划与管理的转变给出了若干建议,认为海洋生态红线区划指标体系可以参照海洋保护区绩效评估、保护区选划与评估指标;并从海洋生态红线的尺度,陆海统筹的生态系统格局-结构\过程-机理,复杂生态系统与海洋生态红线的结合,海洋生态红线基点观测等方面对海洋生态红线的研究和工作方向进行了展望。     

海水网箱养殖对环境的影响

综述了近20年来国内外关于网箱养殖对环境影响的研究动态和成果,包括网箱养殖碳、氮、磷和悬浮物输出造成水体的污染及对沉积物的影响、养殖过程中使用化学药品的污染、养殖鱼类逃逸对渔场生态环境的影响以及外来种、定向育种生物甚至转基因生物养殖所造成的基因污染,以及导致了养殖海区各类生物多样性的改变等,并对海水网箱养殖的可持续发展提出了一些看法和建议。     

Towards an urban marine ecology: characterizing the drivers,patterns and processes of marine ecosystems in coastal cities

Human population density within 100 km of the sea is approximately three times higher than the global average. People in this zone are concentrated in coastal cities that are hubs for transport and trade – which transform the marine environment. Here, we review the impacts of three interacting drivers of marine urbanization (resource exploitation, pollution pathways and ocean sprawl) and discuss key characteristics that are symptomatic of urban marine ecosystems. Current evidence suggests these systems comprise spatially heterogeneous mosaics with respect to artificial structures, pollutants and community composition, while also undergoing biotic homogenization over time. Urban marine ecosystem dynamics are often influenced by several commonly observed patterns and processes, including the loss of foundation species, changes in biodiversity and productivity, and the establishment of ruderal species, synanthropes and novel assemblages. We discuss potential urban acclimatization and adaptation among marine taxa, interactive effects of climate change and marine urbanization, and ecological engineering strategies for enhancing urban marine ecosystems. By assimilating research findings across disparate disciplines, we aim to build the groundwork for urban marine ecology – a nascent field; we also discuss research challenges and future directions for this new field as it advances and matures. Ultimately, all sides of coastal city design: architecture, urban planning and civil and municipal engineering, will need to prioritize the marine environment if negative effects of urbanization are to be minimized. In particular, planning strategies that account for the interactive effects of urban drivers and accommodate complex system dynamics could enhance the ecological and human functions of future urban marine ecosystems.     

Considerations in Developing a Functional Approach to the Governance of Large Marine Ecosystems

Interest in the management of the environment and its resources on an ecosystem basis has been increasing, in both terrestrial and marine contexts. In recent years, the concept of the large marine ecosystem has become a point of focus at the national and international levels as a possible unit for management of ocean and coastal areas. An ecosystem approach, however, challenges the manner in which marine resources and the environment that sustains them have been managed in the past. Governance is a key element in ecosystem management and encompasses the formal and informal arrangements, institutions, and mores that determine how resources and the environment are utilized. This study explores some of the problems, concepts, and principles involved in efforts to provide needed governance arrangements if large marine ecosystem-based management is to be implemented and made effective.     

The Future of the Oceans Past: Towards a Global Marine Historical Research Initiative

Historical research is playing an increasingly important role in marine sciences. Historical data are also used in policy making and marine resource management, and have helped to address the issue of shifting baselines for numerous species and ecosystems. Although many important research questions still remain unanswered, tremendous developments in conceptual and methodological approaches are expected to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the global history of human interactions with life in the seas. Based on our experiences and knowledge from the “History of Marine Animal Populations” project, this paper identifies the emerging research topics for future historical marine research. It elaborates on concepts and tools which are expected to play a major role in answering these questions, and identifies geographical regions which deserve future attention from marine environmental historians and historical ecologists.     

宁德水产养殖区水质状况及驱动力分析

水产养殖对海岸带生态系统的水环境有显著影响,研究水产养殖地区的水质动态及其驱动力对海洋牧场建设和海岸带生态系统管理有着重要意义。以宁德为研究区域,基于2017年夏季和冬季水质监测和遥感影像等数据,通过地理信息系统技术和统计分析软件,分析了水产养殖区域的水质现状、水质变化和驱动力。结果表明,该海域水质处于重污染状态,富营养化水平较高。除了悬浮物和总磷之外,其他水质指标都呈现出显著的季节性差异,不同季节影响水质的因素也不相同。水质的季节性变化是初始水质状况、养殖活动和自然因素共同作用的结果。基于研究结果,笔者建议结合高分遥感技术对养殖区水面覆盖和利用进行监测,对养殖类型和行为(如饵料类型和投放方式)进行调控,开展水质长期监测和风险应急管理,保障海洋牧场社会经济效益的同时降低生态环境影响、防控生态和人体健康风险。     

Fish species diversity in southern African estuarine systems: an evolutionary perspective

Synopsis The ichthyofauna of southern African estuaries consists primarily of juvenile marine species that use these habitats as nursery areas. The abundance and biomass of fishes in estuarine systems are typically high but species diversity is generally low, with only a few taxa dominating the community. This relatively low species diversity is attributed to the fact that estuaries in the region are unpredictable environments which lack any degree of permanence and are dominated by mobile marine eurytopes. Although stenotopes, represented mainly by small resident species from the families Gobiidae, Clinidae and Syngnathidae, are present in southern African estuaries, little speciation appears to have occurred. A possible reason for this lack of speciation, apart from the seasonal and annual variability of the abiotic environment, is that the lifetime of individual systems is usually limited to a few thousand years. In addition, fishes utilising southern African estuaries need to remain flexible (eurytopic) in their responses to an external environment which is unlikely to become more stable in the future. Thus the lack of permanence and fluctuating nature of southern African estuaries on both a spatial and temporal scale, together with the dominance of eurytopes in these systems, does not favour the evolution of new species. A preliminary examination of the available literature indicates that a detailed review of estuarine ichthyofaunal communities on a global basis will probably mirror the trends outlined above, and reveal a domination of these dynamic ecosystems by eurytopic taxa with low speciation potential.     

Biodiversity issues for the forthcoming tropical Mediterranean Sea

Present-day Mediterranean marine biodiversity is undergoing rapid alteration. Because of the increased occurrence of warm-water biota, it has been said that the Mediterranean is under a process of ‘tropicalization’. This paper analyses the main patterns of the Mediterranean Sea tropicalization and considers briefly its extent and consequences. As happened during previous interglacial phases of the Quaternary, Atlantic water, entering via the Straits of Gibraltar, carries into the Mediterranean species that are prevalently of (sub)tropical affinity. On the other side of the basin, Red Sea species penetrate through the Suez Canal, a phenomenon called lessepsian migration from the name of F. de Lesseps, the French engineer who promoted the cutting of the Canal. Also the many exotic species introduced by humans voluntarily or involuntarily are nearly always typical of warm waters. Climate change combines with Atlantic influx, lessepsian migration and the introduction of exotic species by humans to the establishment of tropical marine biota in the Mediterranean Sea. Present-day warming ultimately favours the spread of warm-water species through direct and indirect effects, and especially by changing water circulation. It is impossible at present to foresee to what extent the exuberance of warm-water species will affect the trophic web and the functioning of marine ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea of tomorrow. While Mediterranean Sea communities are modifying their pattern of species composition, they do not seem to be acquiring a more marked tropical physiognomy: Mediterranean coastal marine ecosystems are still dominated by frondose algae (even if the species that are gaining ascendancy are of tropical origin) and not by corals as is normal in tropical seas.     

Collaboration or Contention? Decentralised Marine Governance in Berau

Conservation of marine space is a new frontier in environmentalists’ involvement with resource governance in Indonesia. The coastal and marine area of Berau was established as a District Marine Conservation Area (MCA) based on District Head Regulation No. 31/2005. The total MCA of 1.27 million ha was expected to become part of the wider MCA networks of the East Borneo Seascape and the Sulu Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion, as well as of the Coral Triangle international network of conservation areas in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The Berau MCA was developed in collaboration between the Berau district government and international environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). They claimed to use a new concept of partnership with the decentralised district government as the principal institutional partner. However, the governance framework is full of legal disconnects due to decentralisation of resource management, and its implementation faces the real-life challenges of political-economic and historical valuations of the marine environment producing conflicts of interest between the multi-scalar actors involved. Following the very process of establishing the Berau MCA over a five-year period (2005–2010), this paper shows why it is necessary to understand how collaboration and contention are constructed and in turn construct actors' perceptions and perspectives on marine conservation and resource extraction in decentralised coastal governance.     

Essential ocean variables for global sustained observations of biodiversity and ecosystem changes

Sustained observations of marine biodiversity and ecosystems focused on specific conservation and management problems are needed around the world to effectively mitigate or manage changes resulting from anthropogenic pressures. These observations, while complex and expensive, are required by the international scientific, governance and policy communities to provide baselines against which the effects of human pressures and climate change may be measured and reported, and resources allocated to implement solutions. To identify biological and ecological essential ocean variables (EOVs) for implementation within a global ocean observing system that is relevant for science, informs society, and technologically feasible, we used a driver‐pressure‐state‐impact‐response (DPSIR) model. We (1) examined relevant international agreements to identify societal drivers and pressures on marine resources and ecosystems, (2) evaluated the temporal and spatial scales of variables measured by 100+ observing programs, and (3) analysed the impact and scalability of these variables and how they contribute to address societal and scientific issues. EOVs were related to the status of ecosystem components (phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass and diversity, and abundance and distribution of fish, marine turtles, birds and mammals), and to the extent and health of ecosystems (cover and composition of hard coral, seagrass, mangrove and macroalgal canopy). Benthic invertebrate abundance and distribution and microbe diversity and biomass were identified as emerging EOVs to be developed based on emerging requirements and new technologies. The temporal scale at which any shifts in biological systems will be detected will vary across the EOVs, the properties being monitored and the length of the existing time‐series. Global implementation to deliver useful products will require collaboration of the scientific and policy sectors and a significant commitment to improve human and infrastructure capacity across the globe, including the development of new, more automated observing technologies, and encouraging the application of international standards and best practices.