一株牛源都柏林沙门氏菌的全基因组测序及毒力与耐药性分析

【背景】沙门氏菌(Salmonella spp.)是重要的人畜共患病原菌,其毒力和耐药性的不断增强引起广泛关注。【目的】了解从通辽市一犊牛死亡病例中所分离牛源都柏林沙门氏菌的毒力及耐药性情况。【方法】以病死犊牛肺脏为材料,经细菌分离纯化及16S rRNA基因测序,鉴定病原为沙门氏菌。采用动物试验、药敏试验和PCR方法对分离菌进行毒力、耐药性,以及毒力基因和耐药基因检测,并对其进行全基因组测序分析。【结果】分离菌具有较强毒力,对小鼠半数致死量为2.8×10⁶ CFU/mL。分离菌为多重耐药菌,仅对多粘菌素B和噻孢霉素敏感,对强力霉素和恩诺沙星中度敏感。检测13种沙门氏菌常见毒力基因,检出率为92.3%。对分离菌进行全基因组测序分析,该菌株为都柏林沙门氏菌,基因组大小为4 965 370 bp,GC含量为52.12%,同时携带2个质粒,大小分别为79 524 bp (pTLS-1)和45 301 bp (pTLS-2)。分离菌中共携带996个毒力基因和24个毒力岛;共携带42个耐药基因,其中4个为可水平转移基因,基因组中存在9个可移动遗传元件,包括插入序列和转座子等。【结论】分离牛源都柏林沙门氏菌菌株具有较强毒力且为多重耐药株,携带大量毒力基因及耐药基因。     

宁夏地区一株奶牛源耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌流行株的高通量测序分析

【背景】耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA)是一种常见的条件性致病菌,由MRSA感染导致的奶牛乳腺炎给奶牛养殖户带来了重大的经济损失。【目的】了解宁夏地区奶牛源MRSA流行株基因组序列特征,为MRSA感染的防治提供理论依据。【方法】采用琼脂扩散法对分离株ld11进行抗菌药物敏感性试验,同时运用Illumina高通量测序平台对其基因组DNA进行高通量测序,使用网络数据库对获得的测序序列进行处理分析。【结果】药敏试验结果显示分离株ld11对头孢噻呋、磺胺异恶唑、氨苄西林、红霉素、庆大霉素、苯唑西林、克林霉素、四环素和多西环素耐药,数据分析显示分离株ld11携带耐药基因aadD、spc、str、blaZ、mecA、cat(pC194)、erm(A)、norA、tet(k)和tet(M),二者之间有很好的相关性;分离株ld11携带的耐药基因多于MRSA参考菌株,且分离株ld11和MRSA252的亲缘关系较近。COG功能分析和GO注释结果显示,与维持菌体基本功能和菌株生长增殖相关的基因占优势;KEGG通路分析结果显示,属于代谢通路的基因占比最多。从该菌株基因组序列上共检测到4个基因岛、9个疑似的CRISPR序列和1个完整的前噬菌体序列。【结论】揭示了宁夏地区奶牛源MRSA流行株的部分基因组序列信息,为MRSA菌株间基因组序列信息的比较分析及MRSA感染的防控提供参考依据。     

一株林麝肺源创口博德特氏杆菌全基因组及细胞致死性肿胀毒素分析

【目的】为探究林麝的死亡原因,本研究无菌采集1只死亡林麝肺脏后进行细菌的分离鉴定。【方法】通过细菌分离纯化、生化试验和16S rRNA序列分析,对分离菌株进行鉴定;然后通过药敏试验、全基因组测序与分析以及细胞致死性肿胀毒素(cytolethal distendin toxin subunit B,CDTB)分析,对分离菌株耐药性和致病性进行研究。【结果】在死亡林麝肺脏中分离出1株革兰阴性菌,经鉴定为创口博德特氏杆菌,命名为ZL0001。经过细胞培养观察和CDTB分析表明该菌为胞内寄生菌,含有细胞致死性肿胀毒素,能导致细胞凋亡。药敏结果表明该分离株对氨苄西林、亚胺培南、链霉素和四环素等药物敏感;对氨曲南、林可霉素、克林霉素和呋喃妥因耐药。全基因组测序分析结果表明,该菌株与其他创口博德特氏杆菌的平均核苷酸一致性(average nucleotide identity,ANI)值均97%,基因组大小为4350644 bp,共发现22个耐药相关基因。此外,该菌株基因组包含63个毒力相关基因,其参与鞭毛蛋白、脂多糖、铁摄取、抗血清蛋白以及细胞致死性肿胀毒素等毒力因子的合成。【结论】本研究首次在动物呼吸道中分离出创口博德特氏杆菌,并证明其为胞内寄生菌,对林麝肺炎的发病机理研究具有重要意义。     

鸭源鸡杆菌的分离鉴定及其全基因组序列分析

【背景】鸭源鸡杆菌作为一种条件致病菌能引起家禽卵巢炎、输卵管炎和腹膜炎等疾病,严重威胁养殖业的发展。【目的】四川某养鸡场送检了一批疑似感染鸭源鸡杆菌的病死鸡,为探究其感染机制与防治方法,对该菌进行分离鉴定及全基因组测序分析。【方法】从病料中分离并纯化细菌,再依次进行生化试验、16S rRNA基因序列分析和药敏试验,同时通过全基因组测序对其进行物种分型与毒力、耐药等基因功能注释及遗传进化分析。【结果】该分离菌被鉴定为鸭源鸡杆菌,菌株命名为TS0001,药敏试验显示其仅对硝基呋喃类和少数β-内酰胺类药物敏感,对部分β-内酰胺类、氯霉素、部分氨基糖苷类、大环内酯类、四环素类和磺胺类药物具有耐药性。全基因组序列长度为2 626 722 bp,蛋白质编码基因功能注释显示其有较强的自我加工修饰能力,全基因组注释到83个与毒力因子和耐药性相关的基因,包含4个前噬菌体区域。序列类型分析结果显示,该菌株为ST69型,而且管家基因联合建树表明其与墨西哥普通家鸡分离株7990一致性最高。【结论】本研究为鸭源鸡杆菌的感染机制与防治研究提供了参考,丰富了后续研究的分子生物学背景。     

2016-2017年宁夏地区牛源金黄色葡萄球菌的全基因组分析

[目的] 了解宁夏地区奶牛乳腺炎金黄色葡萄球菌（Staphylococcus aureus,SA）代表菌株的基因组序列基本特征,进一步探究其耐药基因型、毒力及进化关系,为兽医临床防治提供理论依据。[方法] 采用纸片法对97株金黄色葡萄球菌临床分离株进行抗菌药物敏感性试验,同时进行葡萄球菌蛋白A（Staphylococcus aureus protein A,spa）分型、多位点序列分型（multilocus sequence typing,MLST）,根据分型结果选取16株代表菌株进行全基因组测序,并对获得的测序序列进行处理分析。[结果] 药敏试验结果显示97株分离株对18种抗菌药物存在不同程度的耐药,其中9株耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌（methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus,MRSA）对青霉素、氨苄西林、苯唑西林、头孢噻呋、磺胺异噁唑、红霉素、庆大霉素和克林霉素等8种抗菌药物完全耐药,甲氧西林敏感金黄色葡萄球菌（methicillin-sensitiveStaphylococcus aureus,MSSA）菌株对青霉素、氨苄西林、磺胺异噁唑耐药率较高。耐药基因数据库（antibiotic resistance genes database,ARDB）注释分析显示16株代表菌株共携带21种耐药基因,其中norA、tet38、bacA、mepA的携带率较高,与药敏试验结果具有一定的相关性。毒力基因数据库（virulence factors of pathogenic bacteria,VFDB）注释分析显示所有菌株携带多种与粘附、宿主免疫逃逸、分泌、胞外酶编码、铁摄取等疾病相关的毒力基因,MRSA菌株均携带较多毒力因子,MSSA菌株携带毒力因子数目不等。基因岛预测结果显示16株代表菌株存在不同数量的基因岛且MRSA菌株携带基因岛数目及毒力基因岛较多,但耐药基因岛数目与MSSA差异不明显。SNP分析结果显示部分分离株同源性较高,同源性较高的两株MRSA的全基因组基本序列特征差异较小,携带的耐药、毒力基因情况相似。[结论] 宁夏地区牛源SA分离株耐药性情况严重且具有较高的毒力水平,本研究为家畜相关MRSA（livestock-associated MRSA,LA-MRSA）与MSSA基因组序列信息的比较分析及宁夏地区SA感染的临床防控提供参考依据。     

林麝源铜绿假单胞菌噬菌体vB＿PaeM＿PAMD02的生物学特性与全基因组序列分析

【背景】圈养林麝一半以上的死亡是由铜绿假单胞菌引起的化脓性疾病导致。另外,由于细菌的抗性增加,噬菌体是继抗生素后的另一抗菌选择。【目的】以分离自病死林麝肺脏的铜绿假单胞菌为宿主菌分离一株噬菌体,对其进行生物学特性、全基因组序列分析与体内抑菌试验。【方法】通过双层平板法分离纯化一株裂解性噬菌体,测定其裂解谱、最佳感染复数、一步生长曲线、热稳定性、最适生长pH等生物学特性,通过电镜观察其具体形态,进行全基因组测序与序列分析,并进行小鼠体内抑菌试验。【结果】分离到一株裂解性铜绿假单胞菌噬菌体并命名为vB＿PaeM＿PAMD02,该噬菌体具有透明且边缘清晰无晕环的噬菌斑,其裂解谱较窄,最佳感染复数为0.1,裂解潜伏期为40 min,裂解暴发量较高,热稳定性较高,可耐受弱碱环境。其全基因组大小为66 264 bp,GC含量为55.59%,序列注释结果显示该噬菌体具有92个开放阅读框,不含毒力与耐药基因,属于肌尾噬菌体科。小鼠体内抑菌试验结果显示了PAMD02对其宿主菌良好的抑菌效果。【结论】本研究分离的噬菌体PAMD02有较高的裂解效率,对不利环境有较好的耐受性,不含毒力基因与耐药基因,具有应用...     

一株兔源A型多杀性巴氏杆菌的分离鉴定和全基因组测序及分析

【背景】多杀性巴氏杆菌可导致猪肺疫、牛出血性败血症和兔出血性败血症等多种疾病,严重威胁多种动物畜牧养殖业的健康发展。【目的】重庆某兔场送检一批病死兔,为研究其病原和治疗方法,对病原进行了微生物分离和全基因组测序分析。【方法】从2022年重庆某兔场送检兔病料中进行细菌分离纯化、生化试验、16S rRNA基因鉴定、荚膜血清型分型、药敏试验和毒力基因检测,同时通过全基因组测序结果进行毒力、耐药基因注释和遗传进化等分子生物学信息分析。【结果】该菌为兔源A:ST74多杀性巴氏杆菌,命名为LXSS001,基因组序列上传到NCBI数据库(登录号为CP119523.1),药敏试验显示该菌对四环素、杆菌肽、复方新诺明和磺胺异恶唑耐药,对头孢噻肟、头孢哌酮和丁胺卡那等药物敏感。全基因组长度为2 480 671 bp,并注释到了58个毒力基因和9类药物的靶向抗药基因。通过联合建树表明其与3480株一致性最高。【结论】本研究完成了一株A型多杀性巴氏杆菌的分离鉴定和全基因组测序,并揭示了其与国内外其他分离株的进化关系,为多杀性巴氏杆菌的后续研究提供了参考依据。     

社区获得性ST59型MRSA HZW450的全基因组测序及分析

目的对1例脓疱疮患者脓液中分离的1株社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(CA-MRSA)HZW450菌株进行全基因组测序并对序列信息解析。方法使用三代测序PacBio技术对HZW450菌株进行全基因组测序,且使用SMRTanalysis v.R2.3.0对该序列进行序列拼接,上传NCBI进行基因功能注释,用RPSBLAST program进行直系同源簇(COG)注释以及毒力因子相关基因和耐药基因分析。同时比较国内其他地区发现的同一序列型(ST)的菌株毒力因子相关基因及耐药相关基因的差异,并比较HZW450菌株耐药基因型与表型的一致性。结果 HZW450菌株的基因组大小为2 831 958bp,GC占比32.9%,其基因组完成图序列已提交至NCBI GenBank数据库,登录号为CP020741。同时经过分析发现该菌株为ST59型,其基因组中含有许多与致病相关的毒力因子,以及含有耐药基因aph(3′)-III、ant(6)-Ia、mecA、norA、erm(B)和cat(pC233),毒力及耐药基因与ST59型其他菌株比较有差异。该菌株临床药敏结果与耐药基因比较分析发现,耐药表型与基因型存在差异。结论本研究报道了1株CA-MRSA(HZW450)菌株的全基因组序列。基因序列分析显示该菌株携带大量毒力基因,包括lukS-PV、lukF-PV、eta、fnbA、fnbB、sspB、sspC等,编码毒素、粘附、免疫逃逸等相关毒力因子,其毒力较强,致病性较高。     

一株同时携带optrA和cfrC基因的猪源多重耐药结肠弯曲菌的全基因组测序

【背景】弯曲菌(Campylobacter)是一种世界范围内能引起胃肠炎的最常见食源性病原菌,对临床上重要的抗菌药物耐药越来越严重,对食品安全和公共健康造成重大威胁。【目的】研究一株同时携带optr A和cfr C基因的猪源结肠弯曲菌(Campylobactercoli)耐药表型和耐药基因,同时对该菌全基因组特征、毒力基因分布情况以及optr A和cfr C基因环境进行分析。【方法】采用琼脂平板稀释法进行最低抑菌浓度(minimal inhibitory concentration, MIC)测定,并且对该菌进行全基因组测序。【结果】该菌株对四环素、克林霉素、阿奇霉素、氟苯尼考和利奈唑胺呈现高度耐药,对环丙沙星和庆大霉素敏感。全基因组测序得到一条大小为1 436 486 bp的环状DNA (GC含量为31.63%),携带四大类抗生素中共计12种耐药基因,均定位于染色体上,其中氨基糖苷类耐药基因数量最多。此外,携带包含黏附、侵袭和移动等相关毒力基因83个,其中与移动相关的毒力基因数量最多。对4个基因岛分析发现,基因岛GIs002和GIs003中含有耐药基因序列,cfr C位于基因岛GIs...     

医院相关性ST5型耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌ZJ5499的全基因测序及序列分析

目的对1例医院获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)肺炎患者血中分离的1株MRSA(ZJ5499)进行基因组序列信息解析。方法采用Illumina平台高通量测序和Sanger测序相结合对ZJ5499菌株进行全基因组测序,并使用相关软件对序列进行拼接、基因预测、功能注释、直系同源簇注释(COG)及毒力因子和耐药基因分析;并与国内常见流行序列型(ST型)菌株进行进化关系分析、毒力因子和耐药基因比较。结果 ZJ5499菌株基因组大小为2 888 783bp,GC含量32.84%,序列已提交至GenBank数据库,登录号为CP011685。该菌株基因组中含有大量与致病性相关的毒力因子,并含有spc、aadD、mecA、norA和erm(A)五个耐药相关基因,与同一ST型菌株基本一致。进化关系分析显示该菌株与同一ST型菌株关系较近。毒力因子与ST5型菌株没有较大差异,而较其他ST型明显增多。结论本研究报道了临床MRSA菌株ZJ5499的全基因组序列。序列分析发现该菌株的毒力和耐药性与ST5型的菌株相近,而ST5型菌株较其他国内流行ST型菌株携带较多毒力基因。     

Further studies of the sieve-element plastids of theCaryophyllales includingBarbeuia,Corrigiola, Lyallia,Microtea, Sarcobatus,andTelephium

The sieve-element plastids of 69 species of theCaryophyllales were investigated by transmission electron microscopy. All contained the specific subtype-P3 plastids characterized by a peripheral ring of protein filaments. The presence or absence of an additional central protein crystal and their shape being either polygonal or globular as well as the average sizes of the sieve-element plastids are useful features in the characterization of some families.—Barbeuia contains sieve-element plastids that confirm its placement within thePhytolaccaceae. Lyallia differs fromHectorella by including small starch grains in their sieve-element plastids, which otherwise by their globular crystals negate a closer connection to theCaryophyllaceae. The lack of a central protein crystal in its form-P3fs plastids placesMicrotea best within theChenopodiaceae. Sarcobatus, a so far uncontested member of theChenopodiaceae, contains form-P3cf plastids, i.e., including a central crystal not found elsewhere in this family.Telephium andCorrigiola, shifted back and forth betweenMolluginaceae andCaryophyllaceae, have form-P3cf(s) plastids with a polygonal crystal which favor their placement within theCaryophyllaceae.     

Entwicklungsgeschichte und Ultrastruktur von Pollenkitt und Exine bei nahe verwandten entomophilen und anemophilen Angiospermensippen derAlismataceae,Liliaceae, Juncaceae,Cyperaceae, Poaceae undAraceae

Some closely related members of the monocotyledonous familiesAlismataceae, Liliaceae, Juncaceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae andAraceae with variable modes of pollination (insect- and wind-pollination) were studied in relation to the ultrastructure of pollenkitt and exine (amount, consistency and distribution of pollenkitt on the surface of pollen grains). The character syndromes of pollen cementing in entomophilous, anemophilous and intermediate (ambophilous or amphiphilous) monocotyledons are the same in principal as in dicotyledons. Comparing present with former results one can summarize: 1) The pollenkitt is always produced in the same manner by the anther tapetum in all angiosperm sub-classes. 2) The variable stickiness of entomophilous and anemophilous pollen always depends on the particular distribution and consistency of the pollenkitt, but not its amount on the pollen surface. 3) The mostly dry and powdery pollen of anemophilous plants always contains a variable amount of inactive pollenkitt in its exine cavities. 4) A step-by step change of the pollen cementing syndrome can be observed from entomophily towards anemophily. 5) From the omnipresence of pollenkitt in all wind-pollinated angiosperms studied one can conclude that the ancestors of anemophilous angiosperms probably have been zoophilous (i.e. entomophilous) throughout.

     

Synopsis of the tribe Bocageeae (Annonaceae), with revisions of Cardiopetalum,Froesiodendron, Trigynaea,Bocagea, and Hornschuchia

The tribal name Bocageeae Endlicher is reestablished and the tribe is circumscribed on the basis of solitary internodal ebracteate pedicels that are articulated at the base, and pollen shed in polyads of eight or more grains. Septate anther locules, large pollen size, and seed appendages are prevalent in the tribe. Intectate pollen with free-standing columellae, rare in Annonaceae, occurs not only in the genusTrigynaea but also in some species ofBocagea andHornschuchia. As defined here, the Bocageeae include seven neotropical genera:Cymbopetalum, Porcelia, Bocagea, Cardiopetalum, Froesiodendron, Hornschuchia, andTrigynaea. The latter five genera are revised and the treatments include ten new species:Cardiopetalum plicatum, Froesiodendron urceocalyx, Hornschuchia lianarum, H. santosii, H. leptandra, Trigynaea cinnamomea, T. lanceipetala, T. triplinervis, T. lagaropoda, andT. axilliflora, all from tropical South America. A new combination,Froesiodendron longicuspe, changes the rank of that taxon from subspecies to species.Cardiopetalum surinamense is removed fromFroesiodendron and reassigned toCardiopetalum on the basis of its connate petals, dehiscent monocarps, and seeds with bilobed arils. A cladogram provides an explicit hypothesis of intergeneric relationships in the tribe. The new combinationOnychopetalum periquino, based onTrigynaea periquino, is made.     

rbcL sequences support exclusion ofRetzia,Desfontainia, andNicodemia from theGentianales

The taxonomic positions ofRetzia, Desfontainia, andNicodemia have been much discussed, and all three genera have been included inLoganiaceae (Gentianales). We have made a cladistic analysis ofrbcL gene sequences to determine the relationships of these taxa toGentianales. Four newrbcL sequences are presented; i.e., ofRetzia, Desfontainia, Diervilla (Caprifoliaceae), andEuthystachys (Stilbaceae). Our results show thatRetzia, Desfontainia, andNicodemia are not closely related toLoganiaceae or theGentianales. Retzia is most closely related toEuthystachys and is better included inStilbaceae. The positions ofDesfontainia andNicodemia are not settled, butDesfontainia shows affinity for theDipsacales s.l. andNicodemia for theLamiales s.l.     

A reconsideration of the genusRabdosiella (Lamiaceae,Nepetoideae, Ocimeae)

The two generaPlectranthus andIsodon are compared and found to be very dissimilar.Isodon ist considered to be misplaced inOcimeae subtribePlectranthinae and apparently is more closely related to subtribeHyptidinae. The disjunct genusRabdosiella is compared to these two genera and regarded to be polyphyletic. The AfricanR. calycina (Benth.)Codd is returned toPlectranthus and calledP. calycinus Benth., while the AsianR. ternifolia (D. Don)Codd is placed inIsodon sect.Pyramidium and calledI. ternifolius (D. Don)Kudo.     

Species-specific albumin in fossil bones from Orce, Granada, Spain

A skull fragment (VM-0) from Orce, Granada, Spain, dated palaeomagnetically at about 1.6 Myr, is thought by some palaeontologist to be hominid, while others maintain it is equid. If hominid, it would be by far the oldest evidence ofHomo in Europe. Immunological studies on residual albumin in this fossil were carried out independently, and with different immunological methods, at the University of California, San Francisco (radioimmunoassay), and at the University of Granada, Spain (enzyme immunoassay). Other fossils attributed to hominids also studied wereVM1960 from Venta Micena, andCV-1 from Cueva Victoria, Murcia, Spain. Undisputed equid and bovid fossils from the same deposits and dated to a similar period as the Orce skull were also analyzed. Our results showed that species-specific albumin can be detected in 1.6 Myr-old hominid, equid and bovid fossils. The albumin from the Orce skull fragment and fromVM-1960 was immunologically closer to human albumin. These findings support the contention that theVM-0 andVM-1960 are hominid and that members of the genusHomo occupied southern Spain 1.6 Myr ago.     

Novel glycopeptides,containing desmosine and isodesmosine,isolated from porcine aorta

Intima-media of porcine thoracic aorta were digested with pronase, after extraction of the saline-soluble matters and fat. A glycopeptide fraction was precipitated with 90% (vol/vol) ethanol from the 80% ethanol-soluble fraction of the trichloroacetic acid (7%)-soluble fraction of the pronase digest. The glycopeptide fraction was fractionated by affinity chromatography on concanavalin A (Con A)-Sepharose 4B, yielding 4 fractions (FA, FB, FC and FD). The most carbohydrate-rich fraction (FB) was further purified to a homogeneous state. The purified FB (FB-0.1) and all other fractions contained desmosine and isodesmosine. The major sugars in the fractions without or with low affinity for Con A (FA, FB, and FB-0.1) were glucosamine, galactose, mannose and sialic acid, while those in the fractions with high affinity for this lectin (FC and FD) were glucosamine, glucose and mannose. All the fractions contained glycine, aspartic acid (and/or asparagine), serine, proline, threonine, glutamic acid (and/or glutamine) and alanine as the major amino acids, amounting to approximately 80% of the total.     

A new fungal genus, Teracosphaeria, with a phialophora-like anamorph (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota)

The new genus and species Teracosphaeria petroica is described for a perithecial ascomycete and its anamorph occurring on decayed wood collected in New Zealand. The fungus produces immersed, non-stromatic ceratosphaeria-like perithecia in nature, with hyaline, septate ascospores produced in unitunicate, non-amyloid asci. The anamorph produced in vitro is phialophora-like with lightly pigmented phialides terminating in flaring, deep collarettes that are often noticeably brown with conspicuous periclinal thickening. Phylogenetic analysis of LSU rDNA sequence data indicates that this fungus is distinct from morphologically similar fungi classified in the Chaetosphaeriales, the Trichosphaeriales or the Magnaporthaceae. It forms a monophyletic group with recently described, chaetosphaeria-like ascomycetes, such as the pyrenomycete genus Mirannulata, and shows affinity with the anamorphic species Dictyochaeta cylindrospora. The usefulness of describing anamorph genera for morphologically reduced anamorphs, when anamorph characteristics are actually part of the holomorph diagnosis, is discussed. An apparently contradictory example of the so-called Cordana and Pseudobotrytis anamorphs of Porosphaerella spp. is also discussed.     

Phylogeny, biogeography, and species boundaries within the Alexandrium minutum group

The geographic range and bloom frequency of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum and other members of the A. minutum group have been increasing over the past few decades. Some of these species are responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) outbreaks throughout the world. The origins of new toxic populations found in previously unaffected areas are typically not known due to a lack of reliable plankton records with sound species identifications and to the lack of a global genetic database. This paper provides the first comprehensive study of minutum-group morphology and phylogeny on a global scale, including 45 isolates from northern Europe, the Mediterranean, Asia, Australia and New Zealand.Neither the morphospecies Alexandrium lusitanicum nor A. angustitabulatum was recoverable morphologically, due to large variation within and among all minutum-group clonal strains in characters previously used to distinguish these species: the length:width of the anterior sulcal plate, shape of the 1′ plate, connection between the 1′ plate and the apical pore complex, and the presence of a ventral pore. DNA sequence data from the D1 to D2 region of the LSU rDNA also fail to recognize these species. Therefore, we recommend that all isolates previously designated as A. lusitanicum or A. angustitabulatum be redesignated as A. minutum. A. tamutum, A. insuetum, and A. andersonii are clearly different from A. minutum on the basis of both genetic and morphological data.A. minutum strains from Europe and Australia are closely related to one another, which may indicate an introduction from Europe to Australia given the long history of PSP in Europe and its recent occurrence in Australia. A minutum from New Zealand and Taiwan form a separate phylogenetic group. Most strains of A. minutum fit into one of these two groups, although there are a few outlying strains that merit further study and may represent new species. The results of this paper have greatly improved our ability to track the spread of A. minutum species and to understand the evolutionary relationships within the A. minutum group by correcting inaccurate taxonomy and providing a global genetic database.