Building a national wetland inventory: a review and roadmap to move forward

An inventory is internationally recognised as a key tool for informing policy, management and conservation of wetlands. Despite national, state and territory initiatives a comprehensive Australian wetland inventory still does not exist. The primary data requirements for a national wetland inventory are standardised mapping of wetland extent and attribution of typology. Some Australian jurisdictions have ongoing and regularly updated wetland mapping programs that could be consistent with a national inventory framework, whereas others have outdated or scattered information and data. Data requirements for wetland inventories have been reviewed previously, but there have been several recent improvements in technology and available information since those reviews were completed. The focus of this paper is to update previous reviews by outlining the recent opportunities that have emerged, and present a roadmap to support implementation of a jurisdictional wetland inventory program. We applied the process to the Lachlan River catchment in New South Wales, demonstrating the value and relevancy of the roadmap for inventory development. The need for standardised jurisdictional wetland inventories is the first step to their integration into a national wetland inventory. The roadmap and frameworks developed here can guide the development of other programs to overcome impediments and support development of a national wetland inventory. This tool would ultimately support the maintenance, protection and restoration of wetlands at a national level.     

The missing link between awareness and the implementation of wetland policy and legislation in communal areas of Zimbabwe

This paper explores stakeholders’ perceptions of the efficacy of the current policies and legislation meant to conserve wetlands in the communal areas of Zimbabwe. A questionnaire was administered to one hundred and twenty three households adjacent to six wetlands studied including key informants who were interviewed. The existing laws were analysed to determine their appropriateness in light of peoples’ livelihood aspirations and principles of wetland protection. Zimbabwe has no national wetland policy per se but only wetland legislation, however inimitable policies shaped by indigenous tradition and practice were present at each wetland site. The majority of the people were not aware of the existence and rationale of laws governing the conservation of wetlands due to limited awareness education and enforcement by responsible institutions. Therefore, there was a disjuncture between legal provisions and the practical implementation resulting in less impact. Poor implementation of legislation was due to inadequate resources for regulatory agencies, political interference, social conflicts and high incidences of poverty among other factors. The results of the study highlighted that even if awareness was improved, enforcement was likely to remain a challenge unless adequate resources for regulatory institutions and alternative livelihood strategies for communities were availed. The paper thus recommends that development planners should therefore initiate other rural survival options such as restoration of dryland agricultural productivity by introducing water harvesting and conservation farming techniques. This would help to reduce community dependency on already vulnerable wetland ecosystems. Overall, a national wetland policy should be developed through a participatory process, if the legislation is to be used as an effective tool in wetland management.     

Loss and degradation of wetlands in southwestern Australia: underlying causes,consequences and solutions

Many wetlands (estimated to be about 70%) have been lost in the coastal plain region of southwestern Australia since British settlement (in 1829), primarily as a result of infilling or drainage to create land for agricultural use or urban development. While further loss is almost universally acknowledged as undesirable, wetland degradation continues with little overt public recognition of the causes or consequences. Obvious and direct causes include nutrient enrichment, salinization, pollution with pesticides and heavy metals, the invasion of exotic flora and flora, loss of fringing vegetation and altered hydrological regimes occurring as a result of urbanization and agricultural practices. Underlying causes include a lack of understanding of wetland hydrology and ecology on behalf of both planning agencies and the private sector, and poor coordination of the many different agencies responsible for wetland management. Public and political awareness of wetland values continues to increase, but sectoral organization and responsibilities for wetland management lag behind. Sufficient scientific information now exists for improved management, protection and restoration of wetlands in southwestern Australia. However, this improvement cannot occur without the necessary political will and corresponding sectoral responses needed to implement coordinated wetland management policies and actions.     

Drain it,dam it: alteration of water regime in shallow wetlands on the New England Tableland of New South Wales,Australia

Shallow, still-water wetlands on the New England Tablelands, an upland region of eastern Australia, have changed in the past 160 years in their types, abundance and in the diversity of their water regimes. These changes have been natural, intentional or the unintentional consequences of management actions. Changing attitudes and land-use and management practices have led to a large proportion of natural wetlands being drained or dammed, but with a relatively high proportion of those remaining being conserved in some way. The water regimes of those that remain have been greatly altered, usually increasing their stability (more continuously either inundated or dry). Farm dams and domestic water-storage dams are two new and distinct wetland types that are far more numerous than the wetland types in the original landscape. We discuss how changes in water regime have modified wetland attributes. Two case studies: Mother of Ducks Lagoon and the Llangothlin group of lagoons, are used as examples of how attitudes towards wetlands and reasons for water regime alteration have interacted with the tenure and management of wetlands on local, regional, national and international scales.     

Weed invasions in wetlands of Australia's Top End: reasons and solutions

Weed invasions are an increasing threat to the extensive wetlands of the Northern Territory's wet-dry tropics. Although the conservation value of these wetlands is in some ways undisputed, it is evident from the Government's multiple land use policy that it is also misunderstood. This policy aims to maximise economic returns from wetlands while protecting their ecological integrity at a time when ecological and economic costs associated with weeds are, at least in the short term, set to worsen. The underlying reasons behind wetland loss and degradation in Australia parallel those identified in Mediterranean Europe where there was antipathy from bureaucracies toward science and ecology. Several case studies from the Northern Territory explore how ecological, anthropogenic, political and economic factors contribute to weed problems. Caution is necessary when translating experience from agricultural weeds to environmental weeds. Managers have not always heeded the advice of specialists and practitioners, whose understanding of the ecological basis to weed invasions is not in as parlous a state as sometimes thought. Even when faced with sound information from which to manage, it was non-ecological reasons that slowed down or prevented effective weed control. If the floristic identity and diversity of Australia's natural wetlands is to be retained, then weeds need serious and immediate attention. Weed impacts progress beyond loss of wetland habitat and biodiversity to regional changes in landscape processes. We advocate that governments and industry recognise and address the underlying non-ecological reasons that exacerbate weed problems and set priorities to fund relevant practical studies and control programs that enable inventive weed management. Cooperation between land users, custodians and the wider community can help to overcome bureaucratic obstacles and enable judicious weed control that contributes effectively to wetland protection.     

The role of wetland policies in the conservation of waterbirds: the case of Uganda

Mafabi, P. 2000. The role of wetland policies in the conservation of waterbirds: the case of Uganda. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 96–98.

Wetlands in Uganda provide important habitats for birds including several endemic species. With the ever increasing pressure to convert wetlands to agricultural lands, several species have lost their habitats, while others have become pests due to their opportunistic behaviour in modified habitats. The causes of wetland drainage and conversion in Uganda include population growth, economic reforms and a severe lack of information, legislation and inter-sectoral co-ordination. Community uses of wetlands have clear impacts on waterbirds. At Busolwe (case study 1) there is competition for land-use between Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum and man. Priority community uses of wetlands include fish-farming, agro-forestry and bee-keeping. There is a need for integrating bird conservation into overall wetland conservation objectives, especially with the aim of maintaining conditions suitable for waterbird survival during critical stages of the life-cycle. National wetland policies can play an important role in the conservation of waterbirds, as learned from Uganda's experiences. Recommendations for integrating bird conservation into the national wetland policy framework (as well as into national, district and local level planning processes) are made, which point to close co-operation between stakeholders for better management and on improved appreciation of wetlands values.     

A preliminary analysis of the conchostracans (Crustacea: Spinicaudata and Laevicaudata) of the middle Paroo catchment of the Australian arid-zone

Twelve species in the genera Caenestheria, Caenestheriella, Eocyzicus, Eulimnadia, Limnadia, Limnadopsis, and Lynceushave been collected from intermittent wetlands in the Paroo of northwestern New South Wales and southwestern Queensland. This is the first record of Eocyzicus from Australia. Identifications are partly tentative as the Australian fauna is poorly documented; some species seem to be new. There are many co-occurrences, especially in wetlands connected to others, but generally species are adapted for different ranges of turbidity, salinity and length of the wet phase. The high biodiversity is explained by the presence of many distinct types of wetland, each with its own characteristic species.     

我国湿地生态状况评价研究进展

从湿地生态状况评价定义、国际重要湿地和全国重点湿地生态状况和主要评价方法等方面研究综述了我国湿地生态状况评价。对全国1413处湿地生态状况的研究显示,国际重要湿地生态状况总体较好,重点湿地生态状况较差,生态状况差有341处,占24.85%,并系统分析了各类湿地生态状况评价的方法、内容和结果。认为湿地生态状况评价是满足湿地保护管理需求的一项基本技术研究工作,开展湿地生态状况评价可以从不同空间、时间尺度反映湿地生态变化趋势,满足湿地生态系统保护修复的管理要求,并揭示各生态因子的内在关系,是提高湿地的保护、管理和合理开发的重要技术手段。最后分析了当前湿地生态状况评价所面临的难点,并提出了相关对策建议。     

Responsible resource management: the predicament and reform path for Chinese wetland conservation

Despite national conservation policies, international agreements and public support related to wetlands, a wide range of agricultural development and public works projects have resulted in the over-exploitation and degradation of wetlands during the past decades in China. The phenomenon of “the tragedy of the commons” in Chinese wetland conservation is recognized as an incentive problem provoked by a multi-stakeholder situation. This paper examines the governance of China’s wetlands and its hierarchical and functional–behavioral characteristics within the context of resource management. The results show that the administrative system in China wetland management depends on resource element-oriented legislation, in that various agencies managing different resources place various demands on wetland resources. This paper analyzes the responsibilities and incentives of various government administrators and other stakeholders as well as their behavioral logic and why such a multi-stakeholder mode fails to provide adequate wetland conservation. Using Heilongjiang Province as an example, it explains the conflicts between stakeholders within both the legislative system and those who administer wetland management. In addition, it suggests improvements, especially in the form of an integrated management system with an appropriate and unified system of administration.     

北京市湿地维管束植物多样性及优先保护级别划分

综合样带法和样方法对北京24处湿地进行调查,以样地数据为基础计算各处湿地维管束植物的多样性指数,及典型湿地维管束植物物种丰富度和优势度,并对计算结果进行聚类分析。根据分类结果对湿地赋分,密云水库、永定河、玉渡山水库3处湿地确定为重点保护区域,金海湖、汉石桥、野鸭湖等6处湿地确定为一级保护区域,潮白河、拒马河等6处湿地确定为二级保护区域,三里河、翠湖等6处湿地确定为三级保护区域,白河堡水库、北运河和凉水河3处湿地确定为湿地修复区域。根据各处湿地的特点提出国家级、市级、县级湿地自然保护区,湿地保护区小区、市级、县级湿地公园,湿地恢复小区的建设方案。     

湿地生态系统服务功能及其价值核算——以福州市为例

湿地在生态保护和社会发展中占据重要地位,科学合理评估湿地生态系统价值,是湿地保护与合理开发、确保湿地资源可持续性利用的基础。如何科学有效、标准化地评估湿地生态系统生产总值(GEP)并使之纳入国民经济体系核算是科学界和政府部门关注的焦点。本研究构建了湿地生态系统生产总值核算框架体系,并以福州市为研究案例,以多源数据为基础,从功能量与价值量层面,开展了福州市湿地GEP核算研究。结果表明: 2015年,福州市湿地生态系统GEP为2392.33亿元,主要源于湿地的生态调节服务价值(1578.69亿元,占总价值的66.0%),约是产品供给服务价值和精神文化服务价值的2.2和15.6倍。湿地生态调节服务中,以水流动调节服务价值和气候调节服务价值最高,两者占生态调节服务价值的82.9%。福州市湿地单位面积生态调节价值为134.78万元·hm^-2,高于全国水平。福州市各区县中,闽清县湿地生态系统价值量最大,为888.31亿元,占福州市湿地生态系统产品供给和生态调节总价值量的40.1%。福州市滨海湿地的生态调节服务价值最大,约分别是河流湿地和人工湿地类型的2.5倍。福州市湿地生态系统GEP核算是“绿水青山就是金山银山”理念城市尺度的重要践行,为指导地方政府科学管理湿地生态系统提供了技术支撑。     

北京市湿地生态补偿标准研究

确定合理的湿地生态补偿标准是构建有效湿地生态补偿机制的关键。以北京市境内的湿地为研究对象,利用DPSIR模型明晰北京市湿地生态补偿的机理;基于问卷调查数据,分别利用二元Logistic模型和Tobit模型对影响受调查者受偿态度和受偿意愿的相关因素进行分析;运用条件价值法以及考虑时间价值和经济社会发展阶段的修正湿地生态系统服务价值确定最终的生态补偿标准,并对北京市制定湿地生态补偿机制提出了政策建议。研究结果表明：（1）北京市合理的湿地生态补偿标准为2.728×10⁴-4.84×10⁴元hm^-2a^-1;（2）地区差异、受调查者对湿地保护政策的了解程度以及湿地与社区之间的关系显著影响其受偿态度;（3）地区差异、年龄、受教育程度、家庭收入情况、对生态补偿的了解程度显著影响其受偿意愿;（4）为减少将来推进湿地生态补偿过程中可能遭遇的潜在阻碍,北京市应该加强湿地保护相关政策的宣传普及工作,注重对基层政策落实情况的监督,协调湿地政策与社区的关系;（5）有必要结合地区特征制定差异化的湿地生态补偿标准。研究结果可为今后北京市探索建立湿地生态补偿机制、提升湿地保护效率提供科学数据和理论参考。     

雄安新区白洋淀生态属性辨析及生态修复保护研究

湿地是自然界生物多样性最丰富的生态系统之一,与社会发展和人类福祉息息相关。近年来,由于全球气候变化和人类活动的过度干扰,湿地正面临着面积萎缩、功能减弱、多样性降低等诸多问题,湿地退化已经成为制约区域可持续性发展的重大阻碍。伴随着生态文明建设逐渐成为中国特色社会主义建设的重要支柱,湿地生态修复工作得到前所未有的制度保障。深入剖析湿地属性,结合政策保障,有针对性的提出湿地保护与修复的治理措施,对区域的生态环境建设和可持续性发展具有重要意义。选择国家级新区-雄安新区的水命脉-白洋淀湿地为研究对象,在深入剖析其生态属性和已存在的生态问题的基础上,结合生态修复的原则、方法和步骤,提出生态修复与保护的可行性策略。研究结果表明,白洋淀本质是典型的湖泊湿地,同时兼具沼泽湿地特征,由于人类活动的剧烈干扰,白洋淀有向沼泽湿地逆向演替的变化趋势。湿地内存在面积萎缩、水资源量短缺、水环境污染问题突出及生物多样性减少等生态问题。本研究建议:为顺利建设雄安新区,首先,白洋淀湿地在算清"水账"、"污账"和"生态账"的前提下,进一步加强流域水资源调配,科学确定白洋淀湿地最佳水位,恢复淀区水量;其次,通过使用清洁生产技术和限制高排污企业建设等措施,加强污染防治,恢复湿地水质;最后,依据生态承载力理论,划分白洋淀流域的生态功能红线、环境质量红线和资源利用红线等国家生态保护红线体系,为尽快恢复湿地结构与功能提供制度保障。     

浙江秀山岛湿地生态系统初探

秀山岛位于东海舟山渔场海域,岛上有大片的湿地资源分布,其滨海部分与舟山渔场的生物资源特别是渔业生物资源密切联系,具有罕见的海岛特色。海岛的特殊地理位置为秀山岛湿地赋予了独特的生态特征。秀山岛湿地内动植物资源丰富,生物多样性高,共有植物种类300余种,栖息的鸟类共有26个科108种,包括国家一级保护动物东方自鹳（Ixobrychus minutus）。还有国家二级保护动物獐（Hydropotes inermis）等珍贵动物自然栖息。秀山岛湿地包括潮下带湿地（浅海湾）、潮间带湿地（泥滩、芦苇丛）、潮上带湿地（咸水沼泽、半咸水沼泽）、异化湿地（盐田、养殖池、稻田）等几个紧密联系的部分。具有多方面的生态功能。由于对湿地的生态功能重视不够,湿地生态系统破碎化严重。目前在秀山岛湿地已经建立了湿地自然保护区,湿地生态系统得到了较好的发展。     

Ecological monitoring to support Water Sharing Plan evaluation and protect wetlands of inland New South Wales,Australia

Government‐funded flow response monitoring and modelling programmes (flow science) provided by the New South Wales Office of Water (NOW) have supported water resource management since 1997. Flow science has a core technical component defined by hypothesis‐driven long‐term monitoring and analysis, but it also represents many activities that support committees involved in environmental flow management. This is done through collaborations and contracting and has fostered considerable research and analysis into flow ecology, including modelling for the recent Murray–Darling Basin Plan. We describe the performance of environmental flows against legislated wetland objectives to improve wetland function and diversity using flow science. On‐ground monitoring at wetland sites has largely ceased but the flow science done so far indicates that the environmental flow rules written into Water Sharing Plans improve wetland diversity and function. Determination of the long‐term flow needs of NSW wetlands, including how well current Water Sharing Plans aid the delivery of environmental flows, requires finding the means to build on current flow science knowledge from across Australia.     

生态伦理与湿地保护

生态伦理对于湿地保护的重要性主要体现为促进人类对湿地及其价值的正确认识、加强人类保护湿地的自我约束与社会舆论监督、提供制定和实施湿地保护法律法规的伦理基础。生态伦理对于湿地保护的要求主要体现在:人地伦理方面要求人类应当合理利用湿地资源、反对掠夺性的湿地开发、要特别保护湿地濒危野生动植物;代内伦理方面认为当代人在利用湿地资源、满足自身利益上的机会平等,对湿地资源的保护是全人类共同的责任与义务,要求地区之间、国家之间共同协作保护湿地;代际伦理方面要求当代人在对湿地资源开发利用时,应遵循责任原则、节约原则与慎行原则,防止给后代人造成不可挽回的损害。湿地保护伦理的培育途径主要有与湿地科学研究相结合、与湿地法律法规相结合、与社会实践活动相结合、与宣传教育相结合。     

Control and spread of Alligator Weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb., in Australia: lessons for other regions

Biological control of alligator weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. has been successful in limiting growth in water in areas with mild or warm winters, but not on land. Until recently, herbicides have had very limited short term and no long term effectiveness. Several herbicides that now provide better control include: glyphosate over water, and metsulfuron and dichlobenil on land and in shallow water. The latter two are limited by lack of selectivity, contamination of water, and cost. Mechanical or manual control has provided local eradication of the weed at a few locations where infestations were small. Alligator weed is still spreading with new outbreaks on New South Wales, Australia (NSW) coastal beach areas and coastal river systems, and on inland waterbodies. Its use as a cultivated vegetable by some ethnic communities has resulted in many new locations in all eastern Australia states: Queensland to Tasmania. It is predicted that it will spread throughout much of coastal and inland southern Australia. The difficulties with management of this weed indicate that every effort should be made to prevent further invasion of wetlands and, in particular, its introduction to Africa, where it is predicted that all wetlands could support destructive levels of alligator weed growth.     

上海市湿地景观格局时空演变与驱动机制的量化研究

基于1980-2018年上海市历史遥感数据,定量研究上海市湿地景观格局变化及其驱动机制。为此,采用Fragstats 4.2.1计算了景观格局指数,并在数据处理系统软件平台使用灰色关联系统分析了湿地景观格局与社会、经济以及自然环境之间的灰色关联度。结果表明：（1）自1980以来,上海市湿地面积持续缩减,尤其水田损失最多。截至到2018年,上海市共损失了21.06×10⁴hm²的湿地,现存湿地面积为38.22×10⁴hm²,其中人工湿地占85%,自然湿地占15%。人工湿地以水田为主,自然湿地以河流湿地为主。水田和河流斑块平均面积总体上呈波动缩小趋势。河流湿地的形状复杂性最高,其总面积在年际间缓慢缩减,平均分形维度指数年际间波动持平。水田平均分形维度指数年际间波动上升,景观形状向复杂化趋势发展。（2）1980-2010年间,湿地景观破碎化程度总体加剧,最大斑块指数呈波动下降趋势。2010年后,景观破碎化局势向好,最大斑块面积扩大。1980-2015年间,蔓延度指数呈波动下降趋势,香农多样性指数呈波动上升趋势。2015年是蔓延度指数和香农多样性指数变化的转折点。水库坑塘斑块形状较简单,年际间变化小,而且具有结构的自相似性。（3）湿地景观格局受自然、人为双重因素影响。城市扩张导致人工湿地面积减少。自然湿地的演变则主要受气温和降雨的影响。自然因素往往在较大的时空尺度上控制着湿地的景观格局变化。但随着经济的迅速发展,在较短的时间尺度上,国家政策等人为因素对景观格局的影响力逐渐增强。未来,国家对城市湿地保护政策的实施可以使湿地景观格局向好的方向演化。     

Managing mosquitoes without destroying wetlands: an eastern Australian approach

Recognising both the importance of intertidal wetlands and their role in mosquito-borne disease we discuss wise management to conserve wetland values and to reduce vector borne disease health risks. First we summarise the mosquito-borne diseases associated with intertidal wetlands in sub-tropical and tropical Australia. We consider the Ramsar Strategic Plan, its reflection in some key Australian statutes and the relationship between environment-focussed legislation and health legislation. This is followed by a brief overview of mosquito control and its impact on human health. Using a salt marsh example of an integrated process, we describe the development of what was, in the 1980s in Australia, a novel method of habitat modification (runnelling) for mosquito control. Runnelling modifies the tidal water flow on salt marshes, reducing mosquito larval numbers and minimising environmental impacts. The approach is related to two of the Ramsar goals (wise use and institutional capacity and effectiveness). We then describe the extension of its rationale to a complex mangrove system. Finally, with a concept model, we consider the convergence between minimal habitat modification for wetland conservation and human health protection using an interdisicplinary approach involving multiple stakeholders.     

湿地自然保护区保护价值评价方法

提出了一套侧重水鸟保护的湿地自然保护区保护价值评价方法.该方法建立的指标体系经过专家咨询和会议讨论确定指标,采用层次分析法(AHP)建立了递阶层次结构模型.指标体系共分为目标层1项、系统层5项、准则层11项和指标层26项.将获取资料的湿地自然保护区按国家有关分类标准与原则归为3个类型(海洋与海岸生态系统类型、内陆湿地与水域生态系统类型和野生动物类型),每个类型内的自然保护区再结合自身湿地主体进一步划分为4个小类型(近海与海岸湿地、河流湿地、湖泊湿地、沼泽湿地).实例分析了海洋与海岸生态系统类型中的以近海及海岸湿地为主体的自然保护区,内陆湿地与水域生态系统类型中的以沼泽湿地为主体的自然保护区和野生动物类型中的以河流湿地为主体的自然保护区,并依照保护价值指数进行了等级划分.为湿地自然保护区的保护价值和发展地位,总体规划和改建变更提供了依据.