有丝分裂激酶Aurora B的研究进展

真核生物细胞通过有丝分裂将遗传物质均等地分配到两个子细胞中,从而维持基因组的稳定性。有丝分裂的每一环节都需要精准而细致的调控,这依赖于一系列调节机制,尤其需要多个相关激酶的共同协调。Aurora B是一个关键的有丝分裂调控激酶,伴随有丝分裂的进行,其先后在染色体臂、内着丝粒、中央纺锤体、中体上动态分布。与其高度时空动态性相一致的是,Aurora B在有丝分裂的多个环节,如姐妹染色体粘连、动粒微管连接、纺锤体检验点和胞质分裂过程中都发挥着一系列重要功能。本文将概述近年来Aurora B激酶功能与调控方面的研究进展。     

染色体乘客复合体对细胞有丝分裂的调控作用

染色体乘客复合体(CPC)是近年来处于细胞有丝分裂调控研究热点的一组蛋白分子,主要由Aurora B激酶、着丝粒中心蛋白(INCENP)、Survivin及Borealin/DasarB等蛋白分子组成。研究证实CPC在有丝分裂过程中扮演了重要的角色,涉及纺锤体形成、染色体排列、姊妹染色单体分离、纺锤体检查点信号及胞质分裂等多种重要功能的调节。本文重点阐述了CPC各组成蛋白功能特点、相互作用及对纺锤体检查点蛋白和微管蛋白的调节等方面的最新研究进展,同时阐明CPC组成蛋白作为抗癌药物研制靶标的潜在应用价值。     

纺锤体组装检验点:染色体稳定性的守护神

有丝分裂是真核生物进行细胞增殖的基本方式,其根本目的是准确无误地将复制好的染色体平均分配到两个子细胞中。在细胞有丝分裂过程中,纺锤体组装检验点的作用是产生"等待"信号,直至所有的染色体都排列到赤道板上并建立正确的双极定向,以确保染色体的均等分配。在高等动物中,细胞的纺锤体组装检验点功能行使异常,染色体分离将出现错误,导致子代细胞的染色体数量不稳定,进而诱发肿瘤或导致其他疾病的发生。纺锤体组装检验点一直以来都是细胞生物学家研究的热点,然而其作用的分子基础和调控因素还不是十分明了,该文将对近年来关于纺锤体检验点的研究进展进行总结和探讨。     

Dam1复合体在动粒-微管互作中的作用

细胞有丝分裂时动粒和纺锤体之间的相互作用对保证染色体分离的准确性至关重要,错误连接在前中期或中期时需要被修正。染色体要保持正确的连接直到后期纺锤丝将它们拉向两极。在对S.cerevisiae和S.pombe的研究中,非马达微管蛋白Dam1复合体对保持这样的连接起到了重要作用。本文主要介绍了有关Dam1复合体功能的一些关键性试验并且讨论了在酵母和其它有机体中它对于动粒-微管连接的意义。     

MAD2蛋白在蚕豆细胞周期中的同源定位

细胞周期是一个高度有序的过程,其运行过程受到多个检验点(checkpoint)的严格监控.MAD2是动物细胞纺锤体检验点(spindle checkpoint)中一种重要的蛋白。我们利用免疫印记法从蚕豆组织中检测到一种MAD2的同源蛋白,该蛋白的分子量在26KD左右,其亚细胞分布方式与动物细胞大致相同,都随细胞周期的进行而变化:在间期细胞中,MAD2分布于整个细胞中,并且在核膜外侧有优先聚集;在有丝分裂前期细胞中,MAD2在核膜破裂后开始在动粒处聚集;到早中期(prometaphase),MAD2定位于动粒;随着微管的延伸,MAD2逐渐减少直至消失,在中期,晚中期及后期细胞中,动粒处已无MAD2的分布。     

DNA损伤反应性蛋白参与中心体调控

中心体是动物细胞有丝分裂期微管组织中心,对于细胞有丝分裂期形成纺锤体、正常分裂及染色体精确分离至关重要. 中心体失调控常造成遗传物质错误分配,最终诱发肿瘤形成.因此,对中心体结构及数量的精密调控将对细胞命运起着决定 作用.目前发现,中心体至少包含100多种调节蛋白,这些蛋白在细胞内的功能各异.最近很多研究显示,多种DNA损伤修复及 应答通路的激酶或磷酸酶定位于中心体,并且参与中心体调控.本文将对中心体结构、中心体复制、中心体分离、中心体扩 增、DNA损伤与中心体异常及DNA损伤反应性蛋白在中心体调控中的功能作一综述.     

细胞动粒蛋白Hec1启动子的结构及功能分析

细胞的分裂是一个严格调控,高度有序的过程.为了将复制后的染色体均匀、准确地传递给两个子细胞,细胞在分裂中后期受到纺锤体检验点的严格监控.Hec1定位于动粒,是纺锤体检验点调控的关键蛋白之一,它通过螺旋 螺旋结构域与其他动粒蛋白相互作用调节姐妹染色体的精确分离.为研究Hec1转录水平的调控机理,采用BLAST工具,从GenBank 中搜索到了人Hec1基因上游的序列,并利用在线工具http://mbs.cbrc.jp/research/db/TFSEARCH.html提供的转录因子结合位点搜索引擎,对其5′启动子调节区段进行了分析.分析结果表明：在Hec1基因上游-200～-1序列内,存在E2F、ATF4和cAMP应答元件结合蛋白（CREB）等转录因子调控元件.在结构分析的基础上,提取HeLa细胞基因组DNA,用PCR方法克隆了Hec1基因启动子,并构建了多个含启动子不同区段的pGL3荧光素酶报告基因表达质粒.瞬时转染HeLa细胞后的结果表明,-70～－63以及－155～－144之间的启动子区对维持荧光素酶活性最为关键.凝胶迁移实验证明,这两个区段分别能够和转录因子CREB以及ATF4结合.随后,采用野生型的以及含有133位磷酸化位点突变的CREB转染HeLa细胞,通过荧光定量PCR实验发现,Hec1的表达水平分别出现明显上升和下降.该结果表明,Hec1表达的调控是通过CREB的活化来完成的.     

靶向微管抗肿瘤药物研究进展

微管由微管蛋白组成,在细胞分裂、细胞内物质运输、信号传递、维持细胞形态等过程中起着重要作用.一些干扰微管功能的化合物可使细胞停滞在有丝分裂期而抑制细胞增殖.相对于正常细胞,肿瘤细胞有丝分裂异常频繁,以微管作为抗肿瘤的靶点已成为研究热点.作用于微管的微管蛋白抑制剂通过抑制微管蛋白的聚合促进微管解聚或者抑制微管解聚促进微管蛋白聚合来破坏微管动态平衡、干扰肿瘤细胞纺锤体形成、阻断细胞分裂、抑制肿瘤增殖,现就微管蛋白抑制剂的研究进展作一综述.     

Stathmin调控及与疾病的关系

Stathmin是细胞内重要的细胞周期相关的微管作用蛋白。在有丝分裂间期,Stathmin以有活性的去磷酸化形式存在,抑制微管聚合。当细胞进人分裂期,Stathmin被磷酸化失活,微管聚合形成纺锤体,进而染色体分离、细胞分裂。Stathmin的表达和活性受多种转录因子和激酶／磷酸化酶的调控,其表达和活性异常与细胞增殖、神经系统发育及肿瘤等病理生理过程密切相关。     

癌症高表达蛋白——Hecl在纺锤体组装检查点中的作用

细胞增殖依赖于细胞分裂前染色体的复制及随后的姐妹染色单体分离到达两极。纺锤体组装检查点具有确保染色体信息传递保真性的作用,检查点的缺失可能导致染色体的分离异常和肿瘤形成。癌症高表达蛋白(Hecl)通过与调控G2／M期的蛋白间的相互作用而在染色体的分离中发挥重要作用。Hecl与Nuf2的复合物,在G2／M期与动粒相结合,Hecl的缺失将导致严重的染色体分离错误。Hecl具有召集Mpsl和Mad1／Mad2复合物结合到动粒上的作用,这种结合可以激活纺锤体组装检查点途径中非常重要的APC^cdc20途径。但是Hecl、Mpsl、Madl三者之间的相互作用仍未明了。Hecl还可以通过与26S蛋白酶复合物的不同亚基结合调控其功能。Hecl是一种丝氨酸磷酸化蛋白,其磷酸化是由Nek2在G2／M期完成的。     

Human NUF2 interacts with centromere-associated protein E and is essential for a stable spindle microtubule-kinetochore attachment

Chromosome segregation in mitosis is orchestrated by dynamic interaction between spindle microtubules and the kinetochore, a multiprotein complex assembled onto centromeric DNA of the chromosome. Here, we show that Homo sapiens (Hs) NUF2 is required for stable kinetochore localization of centromere-associated protein E (CENP-E) in HeLa cells. HsNUF2 specifies the kinetochore association of CENP-E by interacting with its C-terminal domain. The region of HsNUF2 binding to CENP-E was mapped to its C-terminal domain by glutathione S-transferase pulldown and yeast two-hybrid assays. Suppression of synthesis of HsNUF2 by small interfering RNA abrogated the localization of CENP-E to the kinetochore, demonstrating the requirement of HsNUF2 for CENP-E kinetochore localization. In addition, depletion of HsNUF2 caused aberrant chromosome segregation. These HsNUF2-suppressed cells displayed reduced tension at kinetochores of bi-orientated chromosomes. Double knockdown of CENP-E and HsNUF2 further abolished the tension at the kinetochores. Our results indicate that HsNUF2 and CENP-E are required for organization of stable microtubule-kinetochore attachment that is essential for faithful chromosome segregation in mitosis.     

The Microtubule Binding Properties of CENP-E's C-Terminus and CENP-F

CENP-E (centromere protein E) and CENP-F (centromere protein F), also known as mitosin, are large, multi-functional proteins associated with the outer kinetochore. CENP-E features a well-characterized kinesin motor domain at its N-terminus and a second microtubule-binding domain at its C-terminus of unknown function. CENP-F is important for the formation of proper kinetochore–microtubule attachment and, similar to CENP-E, contains two microtubule-binding domains at its termini. While the importance of these proteins is known, the details of their interactions with microtubules have not yet been investigated. We have biochemically and structurally characterized the microtubule-binding properties of the amino- and carboxyl-terminal domains of CENP-F as well as the carboxyl-terminal (non-kinesin) domain of CENP-E. CENP-E's C-terminus and CENP-F's N-terminus bind microtubules with similar affinity to the well-characterized Ndc80 complex, while CENP-F's C-terminus shows much lower affinity. Electron microscopy analysis reveals that all of these domains engage the microtubule surface in a disordered manner, suggesting that these factors have no favored binding geometry and may allow for initial side-on attachments early in mitosis.     

Septin 7 interacts with centromere-associated protein E and is required for its kinetochore localization

Chromosome segregation in mitosis is orchestrated by dynamic interaction between spindle microtubules and the kinetochore. Septin (SEPT) belongs to a conserved family of polymerizing GTPases localized to the metaphase spindle during mitosis. Previous study showed that SEPT2 depletion results in chromosome mis-segregation correlated with a loss of centromere-associated protein E (CENP-E) from the kinetochores of congressing chromosomes (1). However, it has remained elusive as to whether CENP-E physically interacts with SEPT and how this interaction orchestrates chromosome segregation in mitosis. Here we show that SEPT7 is required for a stable kinetochore localization of CENP-E in HeLa and MDCK cells. SEPT7 stabilizes the kinetochore association of CENP-E by directly interacting with its C-terminal domain. The region of SEPT7 binding to CENP-E was mapped to its C-terminal domain by glutathione S-transferase pull-down and yeast two-hybrid assays. Immunofluorescence study shows that SEPT7 filaments distribute along the mitotic spindle and terminate at the kinetochore marked by CENP-E. Remarkably, suppression of synthesis of SEPT7 by small interfering RNA abrogated the localization of CENP-E to the kinetochore and caused aberrant chromosome segregation. These mitotic defects and kinetochore localization of CENP-E can be successfully rescued by introducing exogenous GFP-SEPT7 into the SEPT7-depleted cells. These SEPT7-suppressed cells display reduced tension at kinetochores of bi-orientated chromosomes and activated mitotic spindle checkpoint marked by Mad2 and BubR1 labelings on these misaligned chromosomes. These findings reveal a key role for the SEPT7-CENP-E interaction in the distribution of CENP-E to the kinetochore and achieving chromosome alignment. We propose that SEPT7 forms a link between kinetochore distribution of CENP-E and the mitotic spindle checkpoint.     

Human MPS1 kinase is required for mitotic arrest induced by the loss of CENP-E from kinetochores

We have determined that the previously identified dual-specificity protein kinase TTK is the human orthologue of the yeast MPS1 kinase. Yeast MPS1 (monopolar spindle) is required for spindle pole duplication and the spindle checkpoint. Consistent with the recently identified vertebrate MPS1 homologues, we found that hMPS1 is localized to centrosomes and kinetochores. In addition, hMPS1 is part of a growing list of kinetochore proteins that are localized to nuclear pores. hMPS1 is required by cells to arrest in mitosis in response to spindle defects and kinetochore defects resulting from the loss of the kinesin-like protein, CENP-E. The pattern of kinetochore localization of hMPS1 in CENP-E defective cells suggests that their interaction with the kinetochore is sensitive to microtubule occupancy rather than kinetochore tension. hMPS1 is required for MAD1, MAD2 but not hBUB1, hBUBR1 and hROD to bind to kinetochores. We localized the kinetochore targeting domain in hMPS1 and found that it can abrogate the mitotic checkpoint in a dominant negative manner. Last, hMPS1 was found to associate with the anaphase promoting complex, thus raising the possibility that its checkpoint functions extend beyond the kinetochore.     

Nuf2 and Hec1 are required for retention of the checkpoint proteins Mad1 and Mad2 to kinetochores

Members of the Ndc80/Nuf2 complex have been shown in several systems to be important in formation of stable kinetochore-microtubule attachments and chromosome alignment in mitosis. In HeLa cells, we have shown that depletion of Nuf2 by RNA interference (RNAi) results in a strong prometaphase block with an active spindle checkpoint, which correlates with low but detectable Mad2 at kinetochores that have no or few stable kinetochore microtubules. Another RNAi study in HeLa cells reported that Hec1 (the human Ndc80 homolog) is required for Mad1 and Mad2 binding to kinetochores and that kinetochore bound Mad2 does not play a role in generating and maintaining the spindle assembly checkpoint. Here, we show that depletion of either Nuf2 or Hec1 by RNAi in HeLa cells results in reduction of both proteins at kinetochores and in the cytoplasm. Mad1 and Mad2 concentrate at kinetochores in late prophase/early prometaphase but become depleted by 5-fold or more over the course of the prometaphase block, which is Mad2 dependent. The reduction of Mad1 and Mad2 is reversible upon spindle depolymerization. Our observations support a model in which Nuf2 and Hec1 function to prevent microtubule-dependent stripping of Mad1 and Mad2 from kinetochores that have not yet formed stable kinetochore-microtubule attachments.     

Hec1 and nuf2 are core components of the kinetochore outer plate essential for organizing microtubule attachment sites

A major goal in the study of vertebrate mitosis is to identify proteins that create the kinetochore-microtubule attachment site. Attachment sites within the kinetochore outer plate generate microtubule dependent forces for chromosome movement and regulate spindle checkpoint protein assembly at the kinetochore. The Ndc80 complex, comprised of Ndc80 (Hec1), Nuf2, Spc24, and Spc25, is essential for metaphase chromosome alignment and anaphase chromosome segregation. It has also been suggested to have roles in kinetochore microtubule formation, production of kinetochore tension, and the spindle checkpoint. Here we show that Nuf2 and Hec1 localize throughout the outer plate, and not the corona, of the vertebrate kinetochore. They are part of a stable "core" region whose assembly dynamics are distinct from other outer domain spindle checkpoint and motor proteins. Furthermore, Nuf2 and Hec1 are required for formation and/or maintenance of the outer plate structure itself. Fluorescence light microscopy, live cell imaging, and electron microscopy provide quantitative data demonstrating that Nuf2 and Hec1 are essential for normal kinetochore microtubule attachment. Our results indicate that Nuf2 and Hec1 are required for organization of stable microtubule plus-end binding sites in the outer plate that are needed for the sustained poleward forces required for biorientation at kinetochores.     

Spindle checkpoint signaling requires the mis6 kinetochore subcomplex, which interacts with mad2 and mitotic spindles

The spindle checkpoint coordinates cell cycle progression and chromosome segregation by inhibiting anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome until all kinetochores interact with the spindle properly. During early mitosis, the spindle checkpoint proteins, such as Mad2 and Bub1, accumulate at kinetochores that do not associate with the spindle. Here, we assess the requirement of various kinetochore components for the accumulation of Mad2 and Bub1 on the kinetochore in fission yeast and show that the necessity of the Mis6-complex and the Nuf2-complex is an evolutionarily conserved feature in the loading of Mad2 onto the kinetochore. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Nuf2 is required for maintaining the Mis6-complex on the kinetochore during mitosis. The Mis6-complex physically interacts with Mad2 under the condition that the Mad2-dependent checkpoint is activated. Ectopically expressed N-terminal fragments of Mis6 localize along the mitotic spindle, highlighting the potential binding ability of Mis6 not only to the centromeric chromatin but also to the spindle microtubules. We propose that the Mis6-complex, in collaboration with the Nuf2-complex, monitors the spindle-kinetochore attachment state and acts as a platform for Mad2 to accumulate at unattached kinetochores.     

The budding yeast proteins Spc24p and Spc25p interact with Ndc80p and Nuf2p at the kinetochore and are important for kinetochore clustering and checkpoint control

Here, we show that the budding yeast proteins Ndc80p, Nuf2p, Spc24p and Spc25p interact at the kinetochore. Consistently, Ndc80p, Nuf2p, Spc24p and Spc25p associate with centromere DNA in chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, and SPC24 interacts genetically with MCM21 encoding a kinetochore component. Moreover, although conditional lethal spc24-2 and spc25-7 cells form a mitotic spindle, the kinetochores remain in the mother cell body and fail to segregate the chromosomes. Despite this defect in chromosome segregation, spc24-2 and spc25-7 cells do not arrest in metaphase in response to checkpoint control. Furthermore, spc24-2 cells showed a mitotic checkpoint defect when microtubules were depolymerized with nocodazole, indicating that Spc24p has a function in checkpoint control. Since Ndc80p, Nuf2p and Spc24p are conserved proteins, it is likely that similar complexes are part of the kinetochore in other organisms.     

Zinc finger protein overexpressed in colon carcinoma interacts with the telomeric protein hRap1

The OZF (ZNF146) protein is a 33 kDa Kruppel protein, composed solely of 10 zinc finger motifs. It is overexpressed in the majority of pancreatic cancers and in more than 80% of colorectal cancers. We found an interaction between OZF and the telomeric hRap1 protein with a yeast two-hybrid screen. hRap1 (TERF2IP) is an ortholog of the yeast telomeric protein, scRap1 originally identified as a regulator of telomere length. In HeLa cells, it interacts with TRF2, a telomere repeat binding factor whose inactivation causes a dysregulation of telomere length and structure. Immunoprecipitation with anti-hRap1 antibodies in conditions that allow the purification of proteins associated with hRap1, demonstrated that OZF binds to hRap1 in HeLa cells. Using deletion mutants, we mapped the interacting domain of each protein. The three zinc fingers at the C-terminus of OZF interact with a region of hRap1 located downstream of the coil domain. It involves a stretch of at least 25 amino acids at the C-terminus of hRap1 that interact with TRF2. This suggests that OZF overexpression in tumours may alter the balance between hRap1 and other telomeric proteins and therefore that OZF function may be linked to telomere regulation.