Biogeographic distribution of the Phytoseiidae (Acari: Mesostigmata)

More than 1982 species in 90 genera were included in an analysis of the biogeography of the Phytoseiidae, a family of predatory mites. Seven biogeographic regions were taken into account: Nearctic, Neotropical, Ethiopian, West Palaearctic, East Palaearctic, Oriental, and Australasian. The number of species was particularly high in the Neotropical, Oriental, and West Palaearctic regions. These regions also present the highest levels of species endemism. The number of genera was quite similar in all regions except for the Neotropics, which also had a high level of endemism. The possible Gondwanian (Neotropical, Ethiopian, Australasian, and Oriental regions) origin of the Phytoseiidae, most probably in the Neotropics, and their possible radiation to Laurasia (Nearctic, West Palaearctic, and East Palaearctic regions) are discussed. The comparison between genera and species in the different biogeographic regions indicate the importance of both dispersal and vicariance events in the evolution of the group. Dispersal is assumed to have been most important between Neotropical and Nearctic regions and between East Palaearctic and Oriental regions, whereas vicariance could have been the dominating process between Australasian, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, as well as between West and East Palaearctic regions. A parsimony analysis of endemicity showed the Neotropical and the Nearctic regions to be isolated from the other regions. This is certainly due to a diversification after the continents drifted apart and then a high dispersal between Nearctic and Neotropical regions. Different phylogenetic hypotheses and scenarios are proposed for each subfamily based on the results obtained and further investigations are proposed.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 845–856.     

Pugs of the tribe Eupitheciini (Lepidoptera,Geometridae): the history of study and distribution over biogeographic regions

The World fauna of the tribe Eupitheciini is the most species-rich in the family Geometridae. This tribe includes about 1900 species (almost 3000 species-group names) from 47 genera; about one third of the genera (15) are monotypic. The generic diversity of Eupitheciini is the highest in the Australian (38 genera, 11 of them endemic) and Oriental regions (32 genera, 4 endemic) and the lowest in the Neotropical Region (possibly one genus only). The faunas of different biogeographic regions can be arranged in following order by their species richness: the Palaearctic (487 species), Oriental (397), Neotropical (346), Australian (251), Afrotropical (198), and Nearctic Regions (166 species). Eupithecia is the most species-rich genus in the family Geometridae and the entire order Lepidoptera, and one of the largest genera in the whole World fauna of insects. The greatest number of species of this genus is recorded in the Palaearctic Region (466 species), where Eupithecia accounts for about 95% of the tribe Eupitheciini. The mainland of the Oriental Region (especially the Himalayas) is also very species-rich; however the proportion of the Eupithecia representatives decreases towards Malaysia, Sundaland, and the Australian Region (about 2% of the tribe). The Eupitheciini faunas have the greatest similarity at the generic level between the Oriental and Australian Regions (the Jaccard and Sørensen coefficient values being 0.62 and 0.77, respectively). The Palaearctic fauna is more similar to the Afrotropical and Oriental faunas at the genus-group level. On the whole, the fauna of the Nearctic Region is similar to that the West Palaearctic, with the exception of the fact that representatives of the genera Gymnoscelis and Chloroclystis are absent in North America, although two endemic genera Nasusina and Prorella are present. At the genus-group level, the Nearctic fauna of Eupitheciini is more similar to the Neotropical (the Jaccard and Sørensen coefficients 0.20 and 0.33, respectively) than to the Palaearctic fauna (0.17 and 0.29). The number of synonymies is very high in the tribe Eupitheciini because of the homogeneity of this group, whose species are difficult to identify without the use of elaborate anatomical techniques. Modern revisions, catalogues, surveys, and atlases on Eupitheciini are absent for many countries and large geographic regions. Revisions of pugs of the tribe Eupitheciini for some biogeographic regions are extremely difficult because of fragmentation of entomological collections including the type specimens of many species-group taxa. A large fraction of synonyms is characteristic of parts of the World with the best known faunas: Europe (64% of synonyms) and North America (39%). On the contrary, the lowest levels of synonymy are typical of the less known faunas of the regions situated at the equatorial latitudes, namely the Neotropical (9%) and Afrotropical (8%) ones.     

西双版纳热带雨林蚁科昆虫区系分析

在西双版纳热带雨林已鉴定蚊科昆虫９亚科７６属２６７种。西双版纳地区的蚂蚁区系以热带至亚热带分布的东洋界成分最为丰富。在属级水平上,与马来西亚界关系最为密切。与澳洲界关系较密切;与非洲界和马拉加西界的关系知中。与新北界,新热带界和古北界的关系最为疏远。可见西双版纳的蚂蚁区系具有典型的热带亚洲起源特征,同时与澳洲和非洲的热带区系有一定的渊源关系。     

Global diversity of true bugs (Heteroptera; Insecta) in freshwater

The aquatic and semi-aquatic Heteroptera, consisting of the infraorders Leptopodomorpha, Gerromorpha, and Nepomorpha, comprise a significant component of the world’s aquatic insect biota. Within these three infraorders as a whole there are currently 23 families, 343 genera and 4,810 species group taxa considered valid, of which 20 families, 326 genera and 4,656 species inhabit freshwater. In addition, more than 1,100 unequivocally diagnosed species remain to be described. Aquatic Heteroptera occur on all continents except Antarctica, and are most numerous in the tropical regions, although there are many distinctly cold-adapted genera. Overall species richness is highest in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, which harbor 1,289 and 1,103 species, respectively. In comparison to these core tropical regions, species richness is significantly lower in the Afrotropical (799 species), Australasian (654 species), Palearctic (496 species), Nearctic (424 species) and Pacific (37 species) regions. Aquatic Heteroptera are notable for utilizing an exceptionally broad range of habitats, from marine and intertidal to arctic and high alpine, across a global altitudinal range of 0–4,700 m. Species may be found in almost every freshwater biotope, and many exhibit striking morphological adaptations to their aquatic environment, making them excellent subjects for ecological and biogeographic studies. Guest editors: E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment     

世界蜘蛛的分布格局及其多元相似性聚类分析

蜘蛛是一类种类繁多、数量巨大、分布广泛的捕食性生物。至2012年底,全世界共有蜘蛛43678种（包括亚种）,隶属于112科3898属。科、属、种3个分类阶元的分布域非常悬殊,90%的种分布在一个界内,90%的科是跨界分布或全球分布。按行政区域,亚洲种类较多,欧洲较少,南极洲没有蜘蛛记录;按动物地理区域,古北界和新热带界较多,新北界较少。根据地理条件、生态条件和蜘蛛的分布状况,将全球陆地分为53个基础地理单元,用申效诚等新近提出的相似性通用公式和据此创立的多元相似性聚类分析方法,分别对属、种两级的分布进行分析,得到两个聚类结构相同、聚类关系合理的支序图,而且属级的支序图层次更为分明,在相似性水平为0.32时,53个基础地理单元聚为17个小单元群,在0,22水平上,又聚为8个大单元群。这些大、小单元群的组成单元地域相邻相连,生态条件相对一致,可以作为蜘蛛地理区划的界、亚界两个层级。和华莱士主要以哺乳动物建立的世界动物地理区划相比,主要差异是：1、古北界东、西两部分差异显著,可分设两界;2、新西兰和澳洲大陆相似性较低,可单独设界;3、新几内亚和太平洋岛屿与澳洲大陆的关系远于和东洋界的关系,华莱士线在两界间的作用似乎不存在; 4、新热带界的中美地区似乎属于新北界更为合适,并由此产生了南北美洲间的紧密联系;5、新北界与古北界的相似性关系弱于与新热带界的关系,全北界的概念几近消失。前两点差异可以从地球板块构造的变动得到解释,第3、5个差异已在植物和其它生物类群得到佐证,第4个差异尚不稳定,需要更多类群的比较与分析。使用多元相似性聚类分析方法对于如此典型的点状分布的生物类群和如此海量的数据,能够得到如此精细的,既符合地理学、统计学的逻辑,又符合生物学、生态学逻辑的定量分析结果,这在国内外都是首次成功尝试,其简便性和合理性将会促使在其它类群中的应用。     

Global diversity of caddisflies (Trichoptera: Insecta) in freshwater

The not yet uploaded Trichoptera World Checklist (TWC) [], as at July 2006, recorded 12,627 species, 610 genera and 46 families of extant and in addition 488 species, 78 genera and 7 families of fossil Trichoptera. An analysis of the 2001 TWC list of present-day Trichoptera diversity at species, generic/subgeneric and family level along the selected Afrotropical, Neotropical, Australian, Oriental, Nearctic and Palaearctic (as a unit or assessed as Eastern and Western) regions reveals uneven distribution patterns. The Oriental and Neotropical are the two most species diverse with 47–77% of the species in widespread genera being recorded in these two regions. Five Trichoptera families comprise 55% of the world’s species and 19 families contain fewer than 30 species per family. Ten out of 620 genera contain 29% of the world’s known species. Considerable underestimates of Trichoptera diversity for certain regions are recognised. Historical processes in Trichoptera evolution dating back to the middle and late Triassic reveal that the major phylogenetic differentiation in Trichoptera had occurred during the Jurrasic and early Cretaceous. The breakup of Gondwana in the Cretaceous led to further isolation and diversification of Trichoptera. High species endemism is noted to be in tropical or mountainous regions correlated with humid or high rainfall conditions. Repetitive patterns of shared taxa between biogeographical regions suggest possible centres of origin, vicariant events or distribution routes. Related taxa associations between different regions suggest that an alternative biogeographical map reflecting Trichoptera distribution patterns different from the Wallace (The Geographical Distribution of Animals: With a Study of the Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas as Elucidating the Past Changes of the Earth’s Surface, Vol. 1, 503 pp., Vol. 2, 607 pp., Macmillan, London, 1876) proposed biogeography patterns should be considered. Anthropogenic development threatens biodiversity and the value of Trichoptera as important functional components of aquatic ecosystems, indicator species of deteriorating conditions and custodians of environmental protection are realised.     

科昆虫地理分布研究初探

本文就科昆虫的起源,各亚科、族及属的分布特点进行了分析和总结;并根据各属的世界分布情况,将其分为８种类型。文中还就中国科昆虫的地理分布及特点作了初步的探讨,结果表明：在我国已知的２亚科４族２０个属中,东洋区分布的有１０个属,其中有３个属仅分布于我国;古北区分布的有１个属;东洋－古北区分布的有３个属;东洋－新北区分布的有１个属;东洋－古北－新北区分布的有４个属;东洋－古北－新北－非洲区分布的有１个属。此外,科昆虫在中国的一个主要分布特点就是多数种类集中分布于华中区、华南区和西南区;而华中区则很可能是科种类的分化中心,并以此为中心向其他区扩散。     

Global diversity of polychaetes (Polychaeta; Annelida) in freshwater

A literature review of Polychaeta (Annelida) including Aphanoneura (the oligochaete-like Aeolosomatidae and Potamodrilidae), living in freshwater yielded 168 species, 70 genera and 24 families representing all of the major polychaete clades, but less than 2% of all species. The best-represented families were, in order, Nereididae, Aeolosomatidae, Sabellidae, Spionidae and Histriobdellidae. Fourteen families were represented by a single species and genus. Regions supporting the highest diversity of freshwater polychaetes were in order, Palaearctic, Neotropical, Oriental, Nearctic, Australasian, and Afrotropical. More than half of all species and genera inhabitat lakes and rivers, followed by lagoons/estuaries, which have a high proportion of euryhaline species, and inland seas. Less common, atypical polychaete habitats include subterranean waters, the hyporheic zone of rivers and plant container habitats (phytotelmata). At least three distinct ecological/historical processes appear to account for the colonisation of continental waters: invasion of a clade prior to the break-up of Gondwana, as in Aphanoneura, Namanereis, Stratiodrilus, and Caobangia; relatively recent stranding of individual species (relicts); and the temporary visitation of euryhaline species. Guest editors: E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment     

Historical biogeography of scarabaeine dung beetles

Abstract Aim (1) To review briefly global biogeographical patterns in dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae), a group whose evolutionary history has been dominated by ecological specialization to vertebrate dung in warmer climates. (2) To develop hypotheses accounting for the evolution of these patterns. Location Six principal biogeographical regions: Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical, Australasia, Neotropical, Nearctic and five outlying islands or island groups harbouring endemic genera: Caribbean, Madagascar, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand. Methods Major patterns of tribal, generic and species distribution are investigated using cluster analysis, ordination, parsimony analysis of endemism and track analysis. Attempts are made to resolve biogeographical patterns with findings in the fields of plate tectonics, fossil and evolutionary history, plus phylogeny of both mammals and dung beetles. Results Because of conflict between published findings, it is uncertain at what point in time density of dinosaur dung, mammal dung or both became sufficiently great to select for specialized habits in dung beetles. However, biogeographical evidence would suggest a Mesozoic origin followed by further taxonomic radiation during the Cenozoic, possibly in response to the increasing size and diversity of mammalian dung types in South America and Afro‐Eurasia. Proportional generic distribution in fourteen tribes and subtribes showed four principal biogeographical patterns: (1) southerly biased Gondwanaland distribution, (2) Americas or (3) Madagascar endemism, and (4) northerly biased, Afro‐Eurasian‐centred distribution with limited numbers of genera also widespread in other regions. Proportional composition of faunas in eleven geographical regions indicated three principal distributional centres, East Gondwanaland fragments, Afro‐Eurasia and the Americas. These patterns probably result from three principal long‐term range expansion and vicariance events (Mesozoic: Gondwanaland interchange and fragmentation, Cenozoic: Afro‐Eurasian/Nearctic interchange and the Great American interchange). It is suggested that old vicariance caused by the Mesozoic fragmentation of Gondwanaland leads to a high degree of regional endemism at generic or tribal level across one or more Gondwanaland tracks. In contrast, it is suggested that the more recent Cenozoic range expansions occurred primarily towards northern regions leading to endemism primarily at species level. These Cenozoic radiations were facilitated by the re‐linking of continents, either because of tectonic plate movements (Africa to Eurasia in Miocene), climatically induced sea‐level change (Afro‐Eurasia to Nearctic in Miocene and Pleistocene), or similar coupled with orogenics (Nearctic to Neotropical in Pliocene). Speciation has followed vicariance either because of climatic change or physical barrier development. These recent range expansions probably occurred principally along an Afro‐Eurasian land track to the Nearctic and Neotropical and an Americas land track northwards from the Neotropics to the Nearctic, with limited dispersal from Eurasia to Australia, probably across a sea barrier. This accounts for the overall, spatially constrained, biogeographical pattern comprising large numbers of species‐poor genera endemic to a single biogeographical region and fewer more species‐rich genera, many of which show wider biogeographical distributions. In most southerly regions (Australasia, Madagascar, Neotropical), faunal composition and generic endemism is primarily dominated by elements with Gondwanaland ancestry, which is consistent with the Gondwanaland origin claimed for Scarabaeinae. In Afro‐Eurasia (Palaearctic, Oriental, Afrotropical), generic endemism of monophyletically derived Afro‐Eurasian and widespread lineages is centred in the Afrotropical region and faunal composition is numerically dominated by Afro‐Eurasian and widespread elements. In the Nearctic region, the fauna is jointly dominated by widespread elements, derived from Afro‐Eurasia, and Gondwanaland and Americas elements derived from the Neotropical region. Main conclusions Global biogeographical patterns in scarabaeine dung beetles primarily result from Mesozoic and Cenozoic range expansion events followed by vicariance, although recent dispersal to Australia may have occurred across sea barriers. Detailed phylogenetics research is required to provide data to support dispersal/vicariance hypotheses.     

基于在线数据库的鳞翅目刺蛾科昆虫物种多样性及其全球分布格局

鳞翅目刺蛾科昆虫在全球范围内广泛分布, 是重要经济林、行道林的主要害虫。本研究通过对在线数据库中刺蛾科昆虫分布数据进行整理分析, 阐明其在全球范围内的物种多样性及分布格局, 并初步探讨造成其物种分布不均的原因, 从而为物种多样性保护及害虫防治提供科学依据。通过检索生物条形码数据库(Barcode of Life Data System V4, BOLD V4)和全球生物多样性信息数据库(Global Biodiversity Information Facility, GBIF)中记录的标本信息, 并结合部分地区鳞翅目昆虫名录及野外采集样本数据, 对刺蛾科昆虫的分布信息进行汇总分析并绘制分布图。统计得到具有明确地理坐标的刺蛾科昆虫分布信息61,947条, 共187属637种。结果表明, 在世界动物地理区系尺度上, 东洋区刺蛾科昆虫物种多样性最高, 共72属, 古北区31属, 澳新区及新热带区均为27属, 非洲热带区22属, 新北区19属。在国家尺度上, 中国存在刺蛾科昆虫123种, 越南116种, 其次为哥斯达黎加(75种)和澳大利亚(69种)。中低纬度地区具有较高的刺蛾科昆虫物种多样性和丰富度, 这有可能与该地区的气候历史条件及丰富的寄主植物资源有关。     

Global diversity of copepods (Crustacea: Copepoda) in freshwater

The zoogeographic distributions of the 2,814 species of copepods reported from freshwater are analysed. Faunal diversity is compared between zoogeographic regions: the Palaearctic region has more than double the species richness of the next most diverse region, the Neotropical. Historical factors affecting levels of diversity are identified. More than 90% of all freshwater copepods are endemic to a single-zoogeographic region and endemic genera occur in all regions except Antarctica. Species that are not endemic to a single region include the highly vagile and cosmopolitan species occurring in four or more regions. The greatest faunal connectivity, as identified by Sørensen’s Index, is between Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, and identifies the Holarctic taxa. Key human-related issues, such as the role of copepods as vectors for human parasites and the losses caused by parasitic copepods in commercial aquaculture, are mentioned.     

中国云南小兽寄生革螨的群落结构和空间分布

寄生在小兽体表的革螨可能是传播肾综合征出血热和立克次体痘等人兽共患病的媒介。本文报道了云南省28个县(市)小兽体表革螨的野外调查结果, 运用物种数、平均丰富度和Shannon多样性指数对小兽寄生革螨的群落特征和沿环境梯度的空间分布进行了研究, 并用系统聚类分析法 (SPSS 16.0软件)对18种主要小兽的革螨群落相似性进行了比较。在云南省28个县(市)共捕获到小兽14 544头, 隶属于5目（啮齿目、食虫目、攀鼩目、兔形目、食肉目）10科35属67种, 在捕获的小兽体表采集到革螨80 791头, 经鉴定属于10科33属112种。结果分析表明: 主要的宿主动物为黄胸鼠 Rattus tanezumi、齐氏姬鼠Apodemus chevrieri和大绒鼠Eothenomys miletus;纳氏厉螨Laelaps nuttalli、毒厉螨L. echidninus和贵州厉螨L. guizhouensis为革螨的优势种。齐氏姬鼠A. chevrieri、社鼠N. confucianus和黄胸鼠R. tanezumi体表寄生的革螨种类最多;臭鼩鼱Suncus murinus、齐氏姬鼠A. chevrieri和灰麝鼩Crocidura attenuata的革螨群落多样性最高。聚类分析结果表明, 大部分革螨群落的相似程度与相应小兽的亲缘关系及所处生态环境的相似性是基本一致的, 分类地位和生境选择相似的小兽, 它们的革螨群落也被聚为一类。革螨物种数沿纬度梯度的水平分布呈现两个峰值, 最大峰值出现在25°~26°N之间;沿海拔梯度的垂直分布呈单峰分布格局, 峰值在海拔2 000~2 500 m之间。革螨和小兽的多样性沿纬度梯度和海拔梯度的空间分布趋势也均表现出随着纬度和海拔的升高而先升高后降低的单峰型分布格局, 峰值分别出现在北纬25°~27°N和海拔2 000~2 500 m之间。结果提示云南革螨群落种类丰富, 多样性高。云南革螨物种数和多样性的分布格局可能直接受到古北和东洋两区系边缘效应的影响。     

Do fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) parallel their mammal host diversification in the Mexican transition zone?

Aim The Mexican transition zone is a complex area where Neotropical and Nearctic biotic elements overlap. A previous study on mammal species has shown a great diversification in the area. We analyse the diversification of their flea species (Insecta: Siphonaptera), in order to determine if a diversification similar to their mammal host species has occurred. Location The area analysed corresponds to Mexico. Methods The panbiogeographical or track analysis was based on the comparison of the individual tracks of 112 species belonging to 48 genera and eight families of the order Siphonaptera. Generalized tracks were obtained based on the comparison of the individual tracks. Nodes were found in the areas where generalized tracks overlapped. Results Thirty‐four generalized tracks were obtained, distributed within the Mexican transition zone (20), the Nearctic region plus the Mexican transition zone (8), the Nearctic region (4) and the Neotropical region plus the Mexican transition zone (2). In the areas where they intersected, 26 nodes were identified: 23 in the Mexican transition zone and 3 in the Nearctic region. Main conclusions The nodes are concentrated in the Transmexican Volcanic Belt (14), Sierra Madre Oriental (5) and Sierra Madre del Sur (4) provinces of the Mexican transition zone. These results show a significant diversification of the flea taxa, in parallel with the diversification of their mammal hosts.     

A review of the ticks (Acari, ixodida) of Brazil, their hosts and geographic distribution - 1. The state of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil

A review of the ticks (Acari, Ixodida) of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil, was completed as a step towards a definitive list (currently indicated as 12) of such species, their hosts and distribution. The ticks: Argas miniatus (poultry), Ixodes loricatus (opossums), Amblyomma aureolatum (dogs), A. calcaratum (anteaters), A. cooperi (capybaras), A. nodosum (anteaters), A. tigrinum (dogs) (Neotropical) and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (dogs) (introduced, cosmopolitan, Afrotropical) were confirmed as present, in addition to the predominant, Boophilus microplus (cattle) (introduced, pan-tropical, Oriental). Of the further 18 species thus far reported in the literature as present in the state, but unavailable for examination: only Ornithodoros brasiliensis (humans and their habitations) (Neotropical), Ixodes affinis (deer) (Nearctic/Neotropical) and I. auritulus (birds) (Nearctic/Neotropical/Afrotropical/ Australasian) are considered likely; 13 species would benefit from corroborative local data but the majority appear unlikely; reports of A. maculatum (Nearctic/Neotropical, but circum-Caribbean) are considered erroneous; the validity of A. fuscum is in doubt. The very recent, first known report of the tropical Anocentor nitens (horses)(Nearctic/Neotropical), but still apparent absence of the tropical A. cajennense (catholic) (Nearctic/Neotropical) and the sub-tropical/temperate Ixodes pararicinus (cattle) (Neotropical) in Rio Grande do Sul are important for considerations on their current biogeographical distribution and its dynamics in South America. The state has relatively long established, introduced ("exotic"), Old World tick species (B. microplus, R. sanguineus) that continue to represent significant pests and disease vectors to their traditional, introduced domestic animal hosts, cattle and urban dogs. There are also indigenous, New World ticks (A. miniatus, O. brasiliensis, A. aureolatum, A. nitens), as both long established and possibly newly locally introduced species in the state, that should be considered as potential and emergent pests and pathogen vectors to humans and their more recently acquired, introduced domestic animal hosts; rural poultry, dogs and horses.     

Contrasting levels of genetic differentiation among putative neutral microsatellite loci in Atlantic herring Clupea harengus populations and the implications for assessing stock structure

Porifera is a primarily marine phylum comprising more than 15,000 species. The successful and wide adaptive radiation of freshwater sponges (Haplosclerida: Spongillina) has resulted in the colonization of an extremely wide variety of habitats at all latitudes. Colonization is dated back to the Mesozoic, and the mono- or poly-phyletism of Spongillina, and the number of potential sponge invasions into freshwater is still under debate. Living freshwater sponges belong to 45 genera in six families for a total of 219 species. The highest diversity, at the scale of zoogeographic regions, is recorded from the Neotropical (65 species), Palaearctic (59 species), and Afrotropical regions (49 species). Endemic freshwater sponge species are 103 (47%) out of 219. All species belonging to the families Lubomirskiidae, Metschnikowiidae, and Malawispongiidae are endemic. Endemic species among the other families are 72% for Potamolepidae, 38% for Spongillidae, and 32% for Metaniidae. Data on some wide geographic areas are scattered and fragmentary if not almost completely lacking. Species richness is probably underestimated and doubtless destined to increase with further research. Guest editors: E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment     

Global diversity of fish (Pisces) in freshwater

The precise number of extant fish species remains to be determined. About 28,900 species were listed in FishBase in 2005, but some experts feel that the final total may be considerably higher. Freshwater fishes comprise until now almost 13,000 species (and 2,513 genera) (including only freshwater and strictly peripheral species), or about 15,000 if all species occurring from fresh to brackishwaters are included. Noteworthy is the fact that the estimated 13,000 strictly freshwater fish species live in lakes and rivers that cover only 1% of the earth’s surface, while the remaining 16,000 species live in salt water covering a full 70%. While freshwater species belong to some 170 families (or 207 if peripheral species are also considered), the bulk of species occur in a relatively few groups: the Characiformes, Cypriniformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes, the Perciformes (noteably the family Cichlidae), and the Cyprinodontiformes. Biogeographically the distribution of strictly freshwater species and genera are, respectively 4,035 species (705 genera) in the Neotropical region, 2,938 (390 genera) in the Afrotropical, 2,345 (440 genera) in the Oriental, 1,844 (380 genera) in the Palaearctic, 1,411 (298 genera) in the Nearctic, and 261 (94 genera) in the Australian. For each continent, the main characteristics of the ichthyofauna are briefly outlined. At this continental scale, ichthyologists have also attempted to identify ichthyological ‘‘provinces’’ that are regions with a distinctive evolutionary history and hence more or less characteristic biota at the species level. Ichthyoregions are currently identified in each continent, except for Asia. An exceptionally high faunal diversity occurs in ancient lakes, where one of the most noteworthy features is the existence of radiations of species that apparently result from intra-lacustrine speciation. Numerous fish-species flocks have been identified in various ancient lakes that are exceptional natural sites for the study of speciation. The major threats to fish biodiversity are intense and have been relatively well documented: overexploitation, flow modification, destruction of habitats, invasion by exotic species, pollution including the worldwide phenomena of eutrophication and sedimentation, all of which are interacting. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Guest editors: E. V. Balian, C. Lévêque, H. Segers & K. Martens Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment     

Ants that associate with Lycaeninae butterfly larvae: diversity, ecology and biogeography

Abstract. Field data on associations of butterfly larvae with ants were collated for 435 species of the subfamily Lycaeninae to analyse patterns in the identity, diversity and ecology of attendant ants. Worldwide, members of at least fifty-three ant genera from six subfamilies associate with Lycaeninae larvae. All these ant genera also forage for other liquid carbohydrate food sources. Species of Crematogaster and Camponotus constitute by far the most important ant associates of Lycaeninae larvae. Diversity of butterfly–ant associations, as measured by Hurlbert rarefaction, is highest in the Oriental, Australian and Nearctic faunal regions, and lower in Africa and the Palaearctic. The Neotropical region could not be assessed separately due to paucity of data. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the number of Lycaeninae species associated with a particular ant genus in a facultatively mutualistic manner is largely determined by the ecological prevalence and geographical distribution, but does not correlate with species richness, of an ant genus. This opportunism is suggested to be the key variable supporting the geographically and taxonomically widespread occurrence of ant–caterpillar mutualism in the Lycaeninae. Obligate interactions are much more specific and almost exclusively involve ecologically dominant ants with long-lived colonies. Neither species richness nor geographical distribution of an ant genus are significant predictors. In such associations, the role of ants shifts from visitors to hosts, and patterns of host use and specificity resemble those known from inquiline ant guests.     

重庆茶园蚁科昆虫区系分析

为了筛选对茶叶害虫有控制作用的蚂蚁种类,采用样地调查法研究了重庆地区茶园蚁科昆虫进行区系。发现蚁科昆虫4亚科,19属,39种,其中记录中国特有种7个,重庆新记录种37个。区系分析表明：重庆地区茶园蚂蚁区系在属级水平上以东洋界和古北界成分为主体,与马来西亚界和非洲界关系最紧密,与马拉加西界关系最远;在种级水平上以东洋界成分为主体,与古北界关系最紧密,与非洲界和马拉加西界关系最远;在中国动物地理区划中以华中区成分为主体,与其它地理区之间随着距离增加,关系逐步疏远。     

Concordant Biogeographic Patterns among Multiple Taxonomic Groups in the Mexican Freshwater Biota

In this paper we analyse the degree of concordance in species richness and taxonomic distinctness (diversity) patterns among different freshwater taxonomic groups in order to test three long held patterns described in Mexican freshwater biogeography: 1. The aquatic biota of Mexico includes two distinct faunas, a rich Neotropical component in the south and a south-eastern region and a less rich Nearctic component towards central and northern latitudes of the country. 2. A hotspot of species richness and diversity has been recorded in the Usumacinta, including the Yucatan Peninsula. 3. The presence of two distinct biotas in Mexico, an eastern one distributed along the Gulf of Mexico slope, and a western one associated to the Pacific versant. We use species richness and taxonomic distinctness to explore patterns of diversity and how these patterns change between zoogeographical regions. This paper points out a clear separation between Neotropical and Nearctic drainage basins but also between eastern (Gulf of Mexico) and western (Pacific) drainage basins. Present data gives additional empirical support from freshwater biota for three long held beliefs regarding distributional patterns of the Mexican biota. The neotropical basins of Mexico are generally host to a richest and more diversified fauna, that includes more families, genera and species, compared to the less rich and less diverse fauna in the nearctic basins.     

The Palaearctic centers of taxonomic diversity of fleas (Siphonaptera)

The Palaearctic flea fauna includes 921 species and 479 subspecies from 96 genera of 10 families. Of them, 858 species (94%) from 43 genera are endemic to the Palaearctic; they comprise 40% of the Palaearctic Hystrichopsyllidae, 24% of Ceratophyllidae, and 20% of Leptopsyllidae. Ranges of 581 species (63% of the Palaearctic fauna) are situated within one province or subregion of the Palaearctic. Species with ranges including a part of Asia (592) comprise 87% of the total fauna; 72% of the species (517) are endemic to the Palaearctic. The largest centers of taxonomic diversity of Palaearctic fleas are situated in the East Asian, Central Asian, and Turano-Iranian Subregions: 320 species of fleas (214 of them endemic) from 59 genera (8 endemic) are known from the East Asian Subregion; 270 species (over 120 endemic) from 54 genera (5 endemic) are distributed in the Central Asian Subregion. The Turano-Iranian fauna comprises 213 species (103 endemic) from 47 genera (3 endemic); about 160 species occur in the Turanian Subprovince closest to the Russian borders, one-third of them (52 species, or 33%) are endemic; 69 species more are endemic to the entire Asian part of the Palaearctic. Extra-Asian and extra-Siberian ranges are known in 190 flea species. In the western Palaearctic, 76 species are endemic to the European Province, and 57 species, to the Mediterranean Province; 36 species have Euro-Mediterranean distribution. The fauna of the Saharo-Arabian Subregion comprises 30 species (12 endemic), 6 species have ranges of the Mediterranean-Saharo-Arabian type. Scenarios of the origin of the Siphonaptera at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary are hypothesized. Formation of the Palaearctic flea fauna was mostly supported by the Asian-Indo-Malayan and East Asian-Western American palaeofaunal centers of taxonomic diversity. The long history of faunal exchange between the east Palaearctic and the west Nearctic is manifested by the distribution of the parasites of rodents and insectivores, fleas of the genera Stenoponia, Rhadinopsylla, Nearctopsylla, and Catallagia, belonging to several subfamilies of the Hystrichopsyllidae, as well as members of a number of other flea families. A great number of endemic species in the genera Palaeopsylla and Ctenophthalmus (Hystrichopsyllidae), both in the European and Asian parts of the Palaearctic, can be explained by the junction of the European and Asian continental platforms in the late Cretaceous and their subsequent isolation during the Paleocene. A considerable contribution to the flea fauna in the Russian territory was made by the East Asian-Nearctic center of taxonomic diversity, with a smaller role of the European palaeofauna. Immigration of species of the family Pulicidae from the Afrotropical Region is restricted to the southern territories of Russia.