人肝细胞内β-葡萄糖醛酸酶定位定量研究

本实验采用抗β┐葡萄糖醛酸酶（β┐Ｇｌｕｃｕｒｏｎｉｄａｓｅ,简称β┐Ｇ）抗体及胶体金探针技术对人肝细胞超微细胞内β┐Ｇ进行定位及定量研究,结果表明,β┐Ｇ定位于肝细胞中的溶酶体和内质网,并且在溶酶体内分布的量较多,与内质网中分布的量相比有显著性差异（Ｐ＜０．０１）,因此溶酶体可做为研究β┐Ｇ与肝细胞病变关系在细胞超微结构水平的形态学研究的模型     

脉红螺（Rapana Venosa）神经系统解剖的初步研究

本文对腹足纲、狭舌目、骨螺科的脉红螺神经系统的大体解剖和组织学进行了初步研究。脉红螺神经系统头向集中程度较高,神经节愈合现象较为明显。切片上观察,中枢神经节均由神经节被膜、胞体区和神经纤维网构成;形态上相似的神经细胞有集中分布的现象。     

花背蟾蜍蝌蚪发生类坏死的皮肤在恢复过程中的超微结构

本实验以花背蟾蜍后肢芽期的蝌蚪为材料,用0.001 mol/L氨水(氨水组)和0.01mol/L醋酸(醋酸组)处理皮肤使之发生类坏死。以细胞核、细胞表面、细胞质及细胞间隙等的超微结构变化为指标,研究了各组皮肤发生类坏死后恢复过程中的可逆变化。结果观察到:两组均能引起核染色质浓缩,粘液分泌,液泡增多,线粒体及内质网膨大变形,细胞间隙变窄;醋酸还引起张力原纤维的凝集及紊乱等。恢复过程中,细胞核内染色质的分布趋于均匀,粘液的分泌渐正常,液泡减少,线粒体及内质网的形态逐步恢复,但细胞间隙一直很??窄;醋酸组中张力原纤维恢复成束且排列较整齐。作者认为氨水及醋酸引起蝌蚪皮肤发生类坏死后,在一定时间内是可以恢复的,而且此可逆变化也反映在超微结构的变化上。     

脉红螺神经细胞和胶质细胞光镜及电镜观察

脉红螺(Rapana venosa)神经节存在三种细胞,它们是神经细胞、星形胶质细胞和无突胶质细胞。从结构上看,神经细胞与后鳃类软体动物海兔(Aplysia)的神经细胞不尽相同。电镜观察表明,脉红螺右足神经节细胞体区的星形胶质细胞与海兔腹神经节内包围神经细胞体的星形胶质细胞很相似。但在脉红螺,星形胶质细胞的突起与神经细胞之间的拓朴学关系尚不清楚。无突胶质细胞在脉红螺神经节内广泛存在,它的核类似于海兔神经细胞的核。这类细胞的功能尚不清楚。     

不同生殖期鳜肝脏超微结构变化的观察

应用透射电镜对生殖季节与非生殖季节鳜肝脏超微结构的变化进行了观察。鳜肝细胞含有单个卵圆形的核,核仁清楚;细胞质内含有粗面内质网、线粒体、糖原颗粒和脂滴等细胞器和内含物。胆小管由相邻的数个肝细胞质膜凹陷围成,而肝血窦则由内皮细胞的胞质构成。还发现了贮脂细胞、枯否氏细胞和成纤维细胞。胆小管腔和窦周隙内浸润许多由肝细胞发出的微绒毛结构。鳜肝细胞的超微结构在产卵前后呈现明显变化：产卵前的肝细胞内富含线粒体、糖原颗粒和脂滴,粗面内质网发达;而产卵后的肝细胞内核仁发生迁移,部分细胞核囊泡化,糖原颗粒和脂滴排空,少数肝细胞具双核结构。非生殖期多数肝细胞核含有双核仁结构,胞质内溶酶体数量增多。     

大阪鲫鱼（Carassius Auratus cuvieri Temminck et．Schlegel）雌性特异血清蛋白生化特性及免疫细胞化学定位的研究

雌性特异血清蛋白存在于成熟雌性大阪鲫鱼血清中,雄鱼则无。注射雌二醇可诱导雄鱼及成熟雌鱼合成这种蛋白质并引起鱼肝细胞粗面内质网增加,糖元颗粒减少。从诱导的大阪鲫鱼血清中分离出电泳纯的雌性特异血清蛋白的分子量为４６６０００±４０００（ｎ＝１０）,电泳谱带有３条,用纯的雌性特异血海蛋白制备的兔抗鱼抗血清不与雄鱼血清发生免疫反应,而与正常成熟雌鱼及诱导鱼的血清形成１条免疫沉淀线。免疫细胞化学定位诱导及成熟雌鱼的肝细胞核外细胞质有阳性颗粒,在卵母细胞外围有成团的阳性颗粒分布。     

玉米叶片细脉原生韧皮部筛分子的分化和超微结构 : 原生质体的变化

玉米（ＺｅａｍａｙｓＬ．）叶片细脉原生韧皮部筛分子开始分化时,首先出现长的粗面内质网潴泡和增厚的细胞壁,随后在质体中出现其特征性的拟晶体内含物。随着分化的进行,长的粗面内质网潴泡转化为较短的形态,最后聚集成一些小的堆叠并失去其核糖体。细胞核发生退化,但常保持到成熟期的后期,此时的细胞核由双层核膜或某些部位仅由内核膜包被,内含电子致密的不定形染色质团块。随后双层核膜破裂而变得不连续。在细胞核开始退化时,核周腔局部膨大。有的膨大核周腔的外核膜破裂,并伴随邻近的部分细胞质解体。在核退化过程中,除内质网外,质体和线粒体的结构也发生变化,而核糖体、细胞质基质、液泡和高尔基体则解体消失。成熟原生韧皮部筛分子的原生质组分分布在细胞边缘,由质膜、线粒体、小的滑面内质网堆叠及具拟晶体的Ｐ型质体组成。随着邻近后生韧皮部筛分子分化的进行,成熟原生韧皮部筛分子的原生质组分逐渐退化,最后消失。     

蚕豆叶片细胞中IAA的胶体金免疫电镜定位

利用胶体金免疫电镜技术对蚕豆(Vicia faba L.)叶片细胞中的IAA定位进行了研究。幼嫩叶片的叶肉细胞中金颗粒主要分布在细胞核和叶绿体中,细胞质及细胞壁也有金颗粒标记。成熟叶片的叶肉细胞中金颗粒主要分布在叶绿体和细胞质,细胞壁也有少量金颗粒标记,液泡中没有发现金颗粒标记。成熟叶片小叶脉的韧皮细胞发现有大量的金颗粒标记,金颗粒主要标记在传递细胞的细胞壁中。小叶脉的维管束鞘细胞中也有很多的金颗粒标记,金颗粒主要分布在叶绿体、细胞质及细胞壁中。幼嫩叶片组织不进行IAA的固定或用正常兔IgG代替IAA抗体染色的对照,很难发现金颗粒标记。对IAA在组织及亚细胞中的定位及其生理意义进行了讨论。     

光和暗条件培养的眼虫藻(Euglena gracilis)内RuBP羧化酶的免疫定位

应用免疫金标记技术证明,在眼虫藻和其它藻类中RuBP羧化酶主要分布在蛋白核部位,这与高等植物中RuBP羧化酶分布不同,在眼虫藻叶绿体间质中有少量RuBP羧化酶存在,这与高等植物中RuBP羧化酶的分布也有相似之处。 暗中培养的眼虫藻不能形成类囊体,无RuBP羧化酶,无光合能力,只能进行异养代谢。     

内质网应激预处理对人正常肝细胞缺氧再复氧损伤的保护作用

目的:研究内质网应激预处理对人肝细胞缺氧复氧损伤的保护作用。方法:将培养的人肝细胞分为4组:正常对照(C)组、细胞缺氧复氧损伤(H/R)组、内质网应激(ER)组、内质网应激预处理(ERP+H/R)组。收集各组细胞,以流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡,Western-bloting及RT-PCR检测内质网应激特异蛋白GRP78表达水平,并通过透射电镜观察各组细胞超微结构改变。结果:ERP+H/R组细胞凋亡率明显低于H/R组(P<0.05),ER及ERP+H/R组GRP78蛋白表达明显高于H/R组(P<0.05)。结论:内质网应激预处理对肝细胞缺氧复氧损伤具有明显的保护作用,内质网应激特异性蛋白GRP78可能在肝细胞缺氧复氧损伤中作为一种关键性的保护蛋白出现。     

The retrotranslocation protein Derlin-1 binds peptide:N-glycanase to the endoplasmic reticulum

The deglycosylating enzyme, peptide:N-glycanase, acts on misfolded N-linked glycoproteins dislocated from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the cytosol. Deglycosylation has been demonstrated to occur at the ER membrane and in the cytosol. However, the mechanism of PNGase association with the ER membrane was unclear, because PNGase lacked the necessary signal to facilitate its incorporation in the ER membrane, nor was it known to bind to an integral ER protein. Using HeLa cells, we have identified a membrane protein that associates with PNGase, thereby bringing it in close proximity to the ER and providing accessibility to dislocating glycoproteins. This protein, Derlin-1, has recently been shown to mediate retrotranslocation of misfolded glycoproteins. In this study we demonstrate that Derlin-1 interacts with the N-terminal domain of PNGase via its cytosolic C-terminus. Moreover, we find PNGase distributed in two populations; ER-associated and free in the cytosol, which suggests the deglycosylation process can proceed at either site depending on the glycoprotein substrate.     

The endoplasmic reticulum membrane is permeable to small molecules

The lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) differs from the cytosol in its content of ions and other small molecules, but it is unclear whether the ER membrane is as impermeable as other membranes in the cell. Here, we have tested the permeability of the ER membrane to small, nonphysiological molecules. We report that isolated ER vesicles allow different chemical modification reagents to pass from the outside into the lumen with little hindrance. In permeabilized cells, the ER membrane allows the passage of a small, charged modification reagent that is unable to cross the plasma membrane or the lysosomal and trans-Golgi membranes. A larger polar reagent of approximately 5 kDa is unable to pass through the ER membrane. Permeation of the small molecules is passive because it occurs at low temperature in the absence of energy. These data indicate that the ER membrane is significantly more leaky than other cellular membranes, a property that may be required for protein folding and other functions of the ER.     

In vitro formation of the endoplasmic reticulum occurs independently of microtubules by a controlled fusion reaction

We have established an in vitro system for the formation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Starting from small membrane vesicles prepared from Xenopus laevis eggs, an elaborate network of membrane tubules is formed in the presence of cytosol. In the absence of cytosol, the vesicles only fuse to form large spheres. Network formation requires a ubiquitous cytosolic protein and nucleoside triphosphates, is sensitive to N-ethylmaleimide and high cytosolic Ca(2+) concentrations, and proceeds via an intermediate stage in which vesicles appear to be clustered. Microtubules are not required for membrane tubule and network formation. Formation of the ER network shares significant similarities with formation of the nuclear envelope. Our results suggest that the ER network forms in a process in which cytosolic factors modify and regulate a basic reaction of membrane vesicle fusion.     

Mammalian ER stress sensor IRE1β specifically down-regulates the synthesis of secretory pathway proteins

Accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) causes ER stress. The ER stress sensor inositol requiring enzyme-1beta (IRE1β), which is specifically expressed in intestinal epithelial cells, is thought to be involved in translational repression. However, its mechanism of action is not fully understood. Using a reporter that can evaluate and distinguish between translation efficiency in the cytosol and on the ER membrane, we show here that IRE1β represses translation on the ER membrane but not in the cytosol, and that this selective repression depends on the RNase activity of IRE1β.     

Endoplasmic reticulum: a metabolic compartment

Several biochemical reactions and processes of cell biology are compartmentalized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The view that the ER membrane is basically a scaffold for ER proteins, which is permeable to small molecules, is inconsistent with recent findings. The luminal micro-environment is characteristically different from the cytosol; its protein and glutathione thiols are remarkably more oxidized, and it contains a separate pyridine nucleotide pool. The substrate specificity and activity of certain luminal enzymes are dependent on selective transport of possible substrates and co-factors from the cytosol. Abundant biochemical, pharmacological, clinical and genetic data indicate that the barrier function of the lipid bilayer and specific transport activities in the membrane make the ER a separate metabolic compartment.     

Evidence for high-capacity bidirectional glucose transport across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane by genetically encoded fluorescence resonance energy transfer nanosensors

Glucose release from hepatocytes is important for maintenance of blood glucose levels. Glucose-6-phosphate phosphatase, catalyzing the final metabolic step of gluconeogenesis, faces the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen. Thus, glucose produced in the ER has to be either exported from the ER into the cytosol before release into circulation or exported directly by a vesicular pathway. To measure ER transport of glucose, fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based nanosensors were targeted to the cytosol or the ER lumen of HepG2 cells. During perfusion with 5 mM glucose, cytosolic levels were maintained at approximately 80% of the external supply, indicating that plasma membrane transport exceeded the rate of glucose phosphorylation. Glucose levels and kinetics inside the ER were indistinguishable from cytosolic levels, suggesting rapid bidirectional glucose transport across the ER membrane. A dynamic model incorporating rapid bidirectional ER transport yields a very good fit with the observed kinetics. Plasma membrane and ER membrane glucose transport differed regarding sensitivity to cytochalasin B and showed different relative kinetics for galactose uptake and release, suggesting catalysis by distinct activities at the two membranes. The presence of a high-capacity glucose transport system on the ER membrane is consistent with the hypothesis that glucose export from hepatocytes occurs via the cytosol by a yet-to-be-identified set of proteins.     

Cisternal Organization of the Endoplasmic Reticulum during Mitosis

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of animal cells is a single, dynamic, and continuous membrane network of interconnected cisternae and tubules spread out throughout the cytosol in direct contact with the nuclear envelope. During mitosis, the nuclear envelope undergoes a major rearrangement, as it rapidly partitions its membrane-bound contents into the ER. It is therefore of great interest to determine whether any major transformation in the architecture of the ER also occurs during cell division. We present structural evidence, from rapid, live-cell, three-dimensional imaging with confirmation from high-resolution electron microscopy tomography of samples preserved by high-pressure freezing and freeze substitution, unambiguously showing that from prometaphase to telophase of mammalian cells, most of the ER is organized as extended cisternae, with a very small fraction remaining organized as tubules. In contrast, during interphase, the ER displays the familiar reticular network of convolved cisternae linked to tubules.     

Bcl-2 proteins regulate ER membrane permeability to luminal proteins during ER stress-induced apoptosis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis may arise from multiple environmental and pharmacological causes, but the precise mechanism(s) involved are not completely known. Members of Bcl-2 protein family are important regulators of apoptosis. In this study, we report that in a process dependent on the proapoptotic Bcl-2 members Bax and Bak, exogenously expressed fluorescent protein localized to the ER lumen is released into the cytosol in cells undergoing ER stress. Upon ER stress induction, endogenous ER luminal proteins are also released into the cytosol in a similar manner accompanied by translocation and anchorage of Bax to the ER membrane. In addition, Bax and truncated-Bid (tBid) mediate a global increase in ER membrane permeability to ER luminal proteins in vitro. Importantly, antiapoptotic Bcl-X_L antagonizes the effects of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins on ER membrane permeability. Consistent with Bax translocation to the ER membrane in whole apoptotic cells, there is also increased tight association of Bax with the ER membrane correlated with the increase in ER membrane permeability in vitro. Overall, these data suggest that the regulation of ER membrane permeability by Bcl-2 proteins could be an important molecular mechanism of ER stress-induced apoptosis.     

Evolutionary Gain of Function for the ER Membrane Protein Sec62 from Yeast to Humans

Because of similarity to their yeast orthologues, the two membrane proteins of the human endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Sec62 and Sec63 are expected to play a role in protein biogenesis in the ER. We characterized interactions between these two proteins as well as the putative interaction of Sec62 with ribosomes. These data provide further evidence for evolutionary conservation of Sec62/Sec63 interaction. In addition, they indicate that in the course of evolution Sec62 of vertebrates has gained an additional function, the ability to interact with the ribosomal tunnel exit and, therefore, to support cotranslational mechanisms such as protein transport into the ER. This view is supported by the observation that Sec62 is associated with ribosomes in human cells. Thus, the human Sec62/Sec63 complex and the human ER membrane protein ERj1 are similar in providing binding sites for BiP in the ER-lumen and binding sites for ribosomes in the cytosol. We propose that these two systems provide similar chaperone functions with respect to different precursor proteins.     

Investigating Endocytic Pathways to the Endoplasmic Reticulum and to the Cytosol Using SNAP‐Trap

Cholera toxin enters cells via an unusual pathway that involves trafficking through endosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Whether the toxin induces its own pathway or travels along a physiological retrograde route is not known. To study its trafficking, we labeled cholera toxin B (CTB) or endogenous plasma membrane proteins with a small chemical compound, benzylguanine, which covalently reacts with the protein SNAP‐tag. Using ER‐targeted SNAP‐tag as reporter, we found that transport of CTB to the ER depends on dynamin‐2 and syntaxin 5. Plasma membrane proteins and a fluid‐phase marker added to the medium were also transported to the ER. This flux was not affected by exposing cells to CTB but was inhibited by depleting syntaxin 5 and increased by depleting dynamin‐2. As a control for confined intracellular localization of ER‐targeted SNAP‐tag we used adenovirus‐5, which traffics to endosomes and then escapes into the cytosol. The virus did not react with ER‐targeted SNAP but with cytosolic SNAP. Together, our results establish a new method (SNAP‐trap) to study trafficking of different cargo to the ER and the cytosol and provide evidence for the existence of a constitutive pathway from the cell surface to the ER .