SRp38基因在小鼠视网膜细胞中的表达以及对GluR-B小基因可变剪接的调控

SR蛋白在前体mRNA可变剪接调控中发挥重要作用.SRp38作为一种新近发现的具有神经及生殖组织特异性的SR蛋白,能够调控一些在神经组织中起重要作用的基因(如GluR-B,Trk-C,NCAML1等)的前体mRNA可变剪接,同时还可以在有丝分裂M期及热休克时抑制前体mRNA剪接的发生.利用Western blot以及免疫组织化学方法研究了SRp38蛋白在小鼠视网膜中的表达以及分布情况,结果显示,SRp38蛋白在视网膜中的表达具有区域特异性,在外网层、内核层、内网层以及节细胞层中均有表达,而在外核层无表达.对分离培养的小鼠视网膜细胞进行免疫双标记分析的结果表明,SRp38蛋白在视杆-双极细胞的胞体、轴突、树突中表达.通过瞬时共转染以及RT_PCR分析,发现在R28细胞中,SRp38过表达可以促进GluR-B小基囚Flip亚型的剪接.结果提示SRp38蛋白可能通过调控小鼠视网膜内前体mRNA可变剪接、进而在小鼠视网膜功能中发挥重要作用.     

可变剪接调控因子SRSF2的研究进展

RNA剪接是指从mRNA前体中去除内含子、连接外显子形成成熟mRNA的过程。由于选择不同的剪接位点,可变剪接控制着从单一前体mRNA生成多种成熟mRNA的过程,因此是真核生物中转录后调控基因表达和决定蛋白质多样性的重要层次。SR蛋白家族是参与调控可变剪接的一类重要的剪接因子。SRSF2是SR蛋白家族的一员,具有经典的SR蛋白结构域。SRSF2不仅能够调控可变剪接,还能调控基因的转录过程,在维持胸腺、骨髓等造血系统的正常发育以及维持肝脏代谢稳态中是非常关键的调控因子。大量的研究表明:SRSF2的突变与骨髓增生异常综合征等造血系统疾病密切相关。本文总结了SRSF2最近的研究进展,以期对SRSF2在体内的功能有更全面和深入的理解,并为相关疾病的研究和治疗提供一定的思路。     

神经胶质瘤中前体mRNA可变剪接研究进展

胶质瘤是最常见的脑肿瘤,前体mRNA可变剪接可能在不同类型胶质瘤的发生、恶化以及侵入中发挥作用.参与调控胶质瘤中前体mRNA可变剪接的因素包括顺式元件如内含子剪接抑制序列(ISS)、外显子剪接抑制序列(ESS)等,反式因子包括SRp55、SC35、SF2/ASF、PTB等剪接调节因子.近期的研究进展发现,有多种与胶质瘤相关的基因受到可变剪接的调控,包括肿瘤抑制因子、肿瘤促进因子、酶、受体、离子通道等.因此,研究胶质瘤中的前体mRNA可变剪接将有利于深入了解胶质瘤发生的分子机制、有利于为胶质瘤的早期诊断和治疗提供新的潜在靶点.     

SR蛋白家族在RNA剪接中的调控作用

SR蛋白家族成员都具有一个富含丝氨酸/精氨酸(S/R)重复序列的RS结构域,在RNA剪接体的组装和选择性剪接的调控过程中具有重要的作用。绝大多数SR蛋白是生存的必需因子,通过其RS结构域和特有的其他结构域,实现与前体mRNA的特异性序列或其他剪接因子的相互作用,协同完成剪接位点的正确选择或促进剪接体的形成。深入研究SR蛋白家族在RNA选择性剪接中的调控机制,可以促进以疾病治疗或害虫防治为目的的应用研究。该文总结了SR蛋白家族在基础研究和应用方面的进展。     

前体mRNA剪接及剪接调节因子SR蛋白和Tra2蛋白

在高等真核生物中,前体mRNA的剪接及其调节是一个复杂的、由多因子参与的过程,它对基因的正常功能的发挥起着重要的作用,任何一种剪接调节因子的异常变化均有可能导致疾病的发生。因此,研究参与前体mRNA剪接调控的相关因子的功能及作用机制,对前体mRNA剪接机制的阐明,无疑是相当必要的。本文着重介绍了两类重要的mRNA剪接调节蛋白——SR蛋白和Tra2蛋白的研究近况,以期对前体mRNA剪接机制的研究的重要性和复杂性有更多的了解。     

mRNA前体选择性剪接的研究进展

mRNA前体的选择性剪接（又称可变剪／拼接）是真核生物的一种基本而又重要的调控机制,它精细协调基因的功能,高效调节基因的定量表达以及蛋白功能的多样化,影响主要发育方向的决定,对细胞的分化、发育、生理功能和病理状态都有重要意义。选择性剪接与许多人类疾病密切相关。目前在生物信息学领域已有选择性剪接数据库的构建,用于选择性剪接的信息存储和处理。     

PTB蛋白:一种调控肿瘤代谢的RNA可变剪接调节因子

多聚嘧啶区结合蛋白(polypyrimidine tract binding protein,PTB或hnRNP I)是一种在细胞内部参与mRNA代谢过程的蛋白质。PTB蛋白可结合于核酸分子上富含嘧啶碱基的序列,对mRNA前体的剪接进行调控。如在部分肿瘤细胞中,PTB的表达量升高可对肿瘤代谢过程中关键的丙酮酸激酶M(pyruvate kinase M,PKM)基因的表达进行调控,通过抑制PKM基因的可变剪接的方式上调PKM2(pyruvate kinase M2,PKM2)的表达,进而强化肿瘤细胞的有氧糖酵解过程并促进肿瘤的发展。本文结合PTB蛋白的结构及其在PKM可变剪接过程中的调节机制,简要综述了PTB蛋白对肿瘤代谢的调控作用。     

可变剪接的生物信息数据分析综述

前体mRNA的可变剪接是扩大真核生物蛋白质组多样性的重要基因调控机制。可变剪接的错误调节可以引起多种人类疾病。由于高通量技术的发展,生物信息学成为可变剪接研究的主要手段。本文总结了可变剪接在生物信息学领域的研究方法,同时也分析并预测了可变剪接的发展方向。     

mRNA前体的剪接因子

真核生物通过mRNA前体的剪接,包括选择性剪接机制,调控着自身的生长与发育,了解其基本过程和有关参与因子,对进一步探索真核生物基因的表达调控和分子进化都具有极其重要的意义.该文简要综述了mRNA前体剪接的基本过程及有关剪接因子的最新研究进展,介绍了SR蛋白（Ser-Arg rich protein）家族因子、某些新发现的参与形成核不均一核糖核蛋白（heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein,hnRNP）的因子及部分：RNA解旋酶等在mRNA前体剪接过程中的功能和作用.     

植物丝氨酸/精氨酸丰富(SR)蛋白的结构和功能及其在植物发育中的作用

丝氨酸／精氨酸丰富（SR）蛋白家族是真核生物中的一类剪接因子,在前体mRNA的组成性和选择性剪接中起作用。本文就近十几年来SR蛋白结构和功能及其在植物发育中的作用的研究进展作以介绍。     

Functional characterization of SR and SR-related genes in Caenorhabditis elegans

The SR proteins constitute a family of nuclear phosphoproteins, which are required for constitutive splicing and also influence alternative splicing regulation. Initially, it was suggested that SR proteins were functionally redundant in constitutive splicing. However, differences have been observed in alternative splicing regulation, suggesting unique functions for individual SR proteins. Homology searches of the Caenorhabditis elegans genome identified seven genes encoding putative orthologues of the human factors SF2/ASF, SRp20, SC35, SRp40, SRp75 and p54, and also several SR-related genes. To address the issue of functional redundancy, we used dsRNA interference (RNAi) to inhibit specific SR protein function during C.elegans development. RNAi with CeSF2/ASF caused late embryonic lethality, suggesting that this gene has an essential function during C.elegans development. RNAi with other SR genes resulted in no obvious phenotype, which is indicative of gene redundancy. Simultaneous interference of two or more SR proteins in certain combinations caused lethality or other developmental defects. RNAi with CeSRPK, an SR protein kinase, resulted in early embryonic lethality, suggesting an essential role for SR protein phosphorylation during development.     

Multiple properties of the splicing repressor SRp38 distinguish it from typical SR proteins

The SR protein SRp38 is a general splicing repressor that is activated by dephosphorylation during mitosis and in response to heat shock. Here we describe experiments that provide insights into the mechanism by which SRp38 functions in splicing repression. We first show that SRp38 redistributes and colocalizes with snRNPs, but not with a typical SR protein, SC35, during mitosis and following heat shock. Supporting the functional significance of this association, a micrococcal nuclease-sensitive component, i.e., an snRNP(s), completely rescued heat shock-induced splicing repression in vitro, and purified U1 snRNP did so partially. SRp38 contains an N-terminal RNA binding domain (RBD) and a C-terminal RS domain composed of two subdomains (RS1 and RS2 domains). Unexpectedly, an RS1 deletion mutant derivative specifically inhibited the second step of splicing, while an RS2 deletion mutant retained significant dephosphorylation-dependent repression activity. Using chimeric SRp38/SC35 proteins, we show that SC35-RBD/SRp38-RS can function as a general splicing activator and that the dephosphorylated version can act as a strong splicing repressor. SRp38-RBD/SC35-RS, however, was essentially inactive in these assays. Together, our results help to define the unusual features of SRp38 that distinguish it from other SR proteins.     

Identification and characterization of three members of the human SR family of pre-mRNA splicing factors.

SR proteins have a characteristic C-terminal Ser/Arg-rich repeat (RS domain) of variable length and constitute a family of highly conserved nuclear phosphoproteins that can function as both essential and alternative pre-mRNA splicing factors. We have cloned a cDNA encoding a novel human SR protein designated SRp30c, which has an unusually short RS domain. We also cloned cDNAs encoding the human homologues of Drosophila SRp55/B52 and rat SRp40/HRS. Recombinant proteins expressed from these cDNAs are active in constitutive splicing, as shown by their ability to complement a HeLa cell S100 extract deficient in SR proteins. Additional cDNA clones reflect extensive alternative splicing of SRp40 and SRp55 pre-mRNAs. The predicted protein isoforms lack the C-terminal RS domain and might be involved in feedback regulatory loops. The ability of human SRp30c, SRp40 and SRp55 to modulate alternative splicing in vivo was compared with that of other SR proteins using a transient contransfection assay. The overexpression of individual SR proteins in HeLa cells affected the choice of alternative 5' splice sites of adenovirus E1A and/or human beta-thalassemia reporters. The resulting splicing patterns were characteristic for each SR protein. Consistent with the postulated importance of SR proteins in alternative splicing in vivo, we demonstrate complex changes in the levels of mRNAs encoding the above SR proteins upon T cell activation, concomitant with changes in the expression of alternatively spliced isoforms of CD44 and CD45.     

The SR protein SRp38 represses splicing in M phase cells

SR proteins constitute a family of pre-mRNA splicing factors that play important roles in both constitutive and regulated splicing. Here, we describe one member of the family, which we call SRp38, with unexpected properties. Unlike other SR proteins, SRp38 cannot activate splicing and is essentially inactive in splicing assays. However, dephosphorylation converts SRp38 to a potent, general repressor that inhibits splicing at an early step. To investigate the cellular function of SRp38, we examined its possible role in cell cycle control. We show first that splicing, like other steps in gene expression, is inhibited in extracts of mitotic cells. Strikingly, SRp38 was found to be dephosphorylated specifically in mitotic cells, and we show that dephosphorylated SRp38 is required for the observed splicing repression.     

Regulation of alternative splicing by SRrp86 through coactivation and repression of specific SR proteins

SRrp86 is an 86-kDa member of the SR protein superfamily that is unique in that it can alter splice site selection by regulating the activity of other SR proteins. To study the function of SRrp86, inducible cell lines were created in which the concentration of SRrp86 could be varied and its effects on alternative splicing determined. Here, we show that SRrp86 can activate SRp20 and repress SC35 in a dose-dependent manner both in vitro and in vivo. These effects are apparently mediated through direct protein-protein interaction, as pull-down assays showed that SRrp86 interacts with both SRp20 and SC35. Consistent with the hypothesis that relatively modest changes in the concentration or activity of one or more splicing factors can combinatorially regulate overall splicing, protein expression patterns of SRrp86, SRp20, and SC35 reveal that each tissue maintains a unique ratio of these factors. Regulation of SR protein activity, coupled with regulated protein expression, suggest that SRrp86 may play a crucial role in determining tissue specific patterns of alternative splicing.     

Loss of Pnn expression attenuates expression levels of SR family splicing factors and modulates alternative pre-mRNA splicing in vivo

SR and SR-related proteins have been implicated as trans-acting factors that play an important role in splice selection and are involved at specific stages of spliceosome formation. A well-established property of SR protein splicing factors is their ability to influence selection of alternative splice sites in a concentration-dependent manner. Identification of molecules that regulate SR family protein expression is therefore of vital importance in RNA biology. Here we report that depletion of Pnn expression, a SR-related protein with functions involved in pre-mRNA splicing and mRNA export, induces reduced expression of a subset of cellular proteins, especially that of SR family proteins, including SC35, SRm300, SRp55, and SRp40, but not that of other nuclear proteins, such as p53, Mdm2, and ki67. Knocking down Pnn expression was achieved in vitro by siRNA transfection. Expression levels of SR and SR-related proteins in Pnn-depleted cells as compared to those in control cells were evaluated by immunofluorescent staining and Western blot with specific antibodies. In addition, we also demonstrate that loss of Pnn expression could modulate splice site selection of model reporter gene in vivo. Our finding is significant in terms of regulation of SR protein cellular concentration because it reveals that Pnn may play a general role in the control of the cellular amount of family SR proteins through down-regulation of its own expression, thereby providing us with a better understanding of the cellular mechanism by which Pnn fulfills its biological function.     

The splicing factor-associated protein, p32, regulates RNA splicing by inhibiting ASF/SF2 RNA binding and phosphorylation

The cellular protein p32 was isolated originally as a protein tightly associated with the essential splicing factor ASF/SF2 during its purification from HeLa cells. ASF/SF2 is a member of the SR family of splicing factors, which stimulate constitutive splicing and regulate alternative RNA splicing in a positive or negative fashion, depending on where on the pre-mRNA they bind. Here we present evidence that p32 interacts with ASF/SF2 and SRp30c, another member of the SR protein family. We further show that p32 inhibits ASF/SF2 function as both a splicing enhancer and splicing repressor protein by preventing stable ASF/SF2 interaction with RNA, but p32 does not block SRp30c function. ASF/SF2 is highly phosphorylated in vivo, a modification required for stable RNA binding and protein-protein interaction during spliceosome formation, and this phosphorylation, either through HeLa nuclear extracts or through specific SR protein kinases, is inhibited by p32. Our results suggest that p32 functions as an ASF/SF2 inhibitory factor, regulating ASF/SF2 RNA binding and phosphorylation. These findings place p32 into a new group of proteins that control RNA splicing by sequestering an essential RNA splicing factor into an inhibitory complex.     

A subset of SR proteins activates splicing of the cardiac troponin T alternative exon by direct interactions with an exonic enhancer.

The cardiac troponin T pre-mRNA contains an exonic splicing enhancer that is required for inclusion of the alternative exon 5. Here we show that enhancer activity is exquisitely sensitive to changes in the sequence of a 9-nucleotide motif (GAGGAAGAA) even when its purine content is preserved. A series of mutations that increased or decreased the level of exon inclusion in vivo were used to correlate enhancer strength with RNA-protein interactions in vitro. Analyses involving UV cross-linking and immunoprecipitation indicated that only four (SRp30a, SRp40, SRp55, and SRp75) of six essential splicing factors known as SR proteins bind to the active enhancer RNA. Moreover, purified SRp40 and SRp55 activate splicing of exon 5 when added to a splicing-deficient S100 extract. Purified SRp30b did not stimulate splicing in S100 extracts, which is consistent with its failure to bind the enhancer RNA. In vitro competition of SR protein splicing activity and UV cross-linking demonstrated that the sequence determinants for SR protein binding were precisely coincident with the sequence determinants of enhancer strength. Thus, a subset of SR proteins interacts directly with the exonic enhancer to promote inclusion of a poorly defined alternative exon. Independent regulation of the levels of SR proteins may, therefore, contribute to the developmental regulation of exon inclusion.