Structure of the RAF1-HSP90-CDC37 complex reveals the basis of RAF1 regulation

1. Download : Download high-res image (267KB)
2. Download : Download full-size image

     

Lyso-PAF,a biologically inactive phospholipid,contributes to RAF1 activation

1. Download : Download high-res image (130KB)
2. Download : Download full-size image

     

Imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-6-yl-benzamide analogs as potent RAF inhibitors

A series of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-6-yl-benzamide analogs was designed as inhibitors of B-RAF^V600E. Medicinal chemistry techniques were employed to explore the SAR for this series and improve selectivity versus P38 and VEGFR2.     

Single substitution within the RKTR motif impairs kinase activity but promotes dimerization of RAF kinase

The serine/threonine kinase RAF is a central component of the MAPK cascade. Regulation of RAF activity is highly complex and involves recruitment to membranes and association with Ras and scaffold proteins as well as multiple phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events. Previously, we identified by molecular modeling an interaction between the N-region and the RKTR motif of the kinase domain in RAF and assigned a new function to this tetrapeptide segment. Here we found that a single substitution of each basic residue within the RKTR motif inhibited catalytic activity of all three RAF isoforms. However, the inhibition and phosphorylation pattern of C-RAF and A-RAF differed from B-RAF. Furthermore, substitution of the first arginine led to hyperphosphorylation and accumulation of A-RAF and C-RAF in plasma membrane fraction, indicating that this residue interferes with the recycling process of A-RAF and C-RAF but not B-RAF. In contrast, all RAF isoforms behave similarly with respect to the RKTR motif-dependent dimerization. The exchange of the second arginine led to exceedingly increased dimerization as long as one of the protomers was not mutated, suggesting that substitution of this residue with alanine may result in similar a structural rearrangement of the RAF kinase domain, as has been found for the C-RAF kinase domain co-crystallized with a dimerization-stabilizing RAF inhibitor. In summary, we provide evidence that each of the basic residues within the RKTR motif is indispensable for correct RAF function.     

Design and synthesis of isoquinolines and benzimidazoles as RAF kinase inhibitors

RAF kinase plays a critical role in the RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway and inhibitors of RAF could be of use for the treatment of various cancer types. We have designed potent RAF-1 inhibitors bearing novel bicyclic heterocycles as key structural elements for the interaction with the hinge region. In both series exploration of the SAR was focussed on the substitution of the phenyl ring, which binds to the induced fit pocket. Overall, it was confirmed that incorporation of lipophilic substituents was needed for potent Raf inhibition and a number of potent analogues were obtained.     

RAF and antioxidants prevent cell death induction after growth factor abrogation through regulation of Bcl-2 proteins

We have shown previously that mitochondrial ROS production is essential to turn growth factor (GF) removal into cell death. Activated RAF, AKT, Bcl-2 and antioxidants protected equally well against ROS accumulation and subsequent death. Here we investigated whether protection by survival signaling and antioxidants utilizes shared or distinct targets. Using serum deprivation from NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and IL-3 withdrawal from promyeloid 32D cells, we showed that pro-survival signaling by activated RAF but not AKT prevented the decline in Mcl-1 following GF abrogation. GF starvation increased levels of Bim in both model systems, which was prevented by RAF in 32D cells but not in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. RAF and AKT suppressed activation and mitochondrial translocation of BAX. Also, antioxidant treatment efficiently prevented BAX activation and death of 32D cells but showed little effect on its mitochondrial translocation. No significant impact of antioxidant treatment on Bim or Mcl-1 expression was observed. ROS produced during GF abrogation also did not alter the activity of intracellular signaling pathways, which have been implicated previously in cell killing by pro-oxidants. Together these data suggest Bcl-2 family proteins as convergence point for RAF and ROS in life and death decisions.     

Src42 binding activity regulates Drosophila RAF by a novel CNK-dependent derepression mechanism

Connector enhancer of KSR (CNK), an essential component of Drosophila receptor tyrosine kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, regulates oppositely RAF function. This bimodal property depends on the N-terminal region of CNK, which integrates RAS activity to stimulate RAF and a bipartite element, called the RAF-inhibitory region (RIR), which binds and inhibits RAF catalytic activity. Here, we show that the repressive effect of the RIR is counteracted by the ability of Src42 to associate, in an RTK-dependent manner, with a conserved region located immediately C-terminal to the RIR. Strikingly, we found that several cnk loss-of-function alleles have mutations clustered in this area and provide evidence that these mutations impair Src42 binding. Surprisingly, the derepressing effect of Src42 does not appear to involve its catalytic function, but critically depends on the ability of its SH3 and SH2 domains to associate with CNK. Together, these findings suggest that the integration of RTK-induced RAS and Src42 signals by CNK as a two-component input is essential for RAF activation in Drosophila.     

Metabolic stress regulates ERK activity by controlling KSR‐RAF heterodimerization

Altered cell metabolism is a hallmark of cancer, and targeting specific metabolic nodes is considered an attractive strategy for cancer therapy. In this study, we evaluate the effects of metabolic stressors on the deregulated ERK pathway in melanoma cells bearing activating mutations of the NRAS or BRAF oncogenes. We report that metabolic stressors promote the dimerization of KSR proteins with CRAF in NRAS‐mutant cells, and with oncogenic BRAF in BRAF^V600E‐mutant cells, thereby enhancing ERK pathway activation. Despite this similarity, the two genomic subtypes react differently when a higher level of metabolic stress is induced. In NRAS‐mutant cells, the ERK pathway is even more stimulated, while it is strongly downregulated in BRAF^V600E‐mutant cells. We demonstrate that this is caused by the dissociation of mutant BRAF from KSR and is mediated by activated AMPK. Both types of ERK regulation nevertheless lead to cell cycle arrest. Besides studying the effects of the metabolic stressors on ERK pathway activity, we also present data suggesting that for efficient therapies of both genomic melanoma subtypes, specific metabolic targeting is necessary.     

Retinoic acid causes MEK-dependent RAF phosphorylation through RARα plus RXR activation in HL-60 cells

Retinoic acid (RA) is known to cause the myeloid differentiation of HL-60 human myeloblastic leukemia cells in a process requiring MEK-dependent ERK2 activation. This RA-induced ERK2 activation appears after approximately 4 h and persists until the cells are differentiated and G0 arrested (Yen et al, 1998). This motivates the question of whether RA also activated RAF as part of a typical RAF/MEK/MAPK cascade. Retinoic acid is shown here to also increase the phosphorylation of RAF, but in an unusual way. Surprisingly, increased RAF phosphorylation is first detectable after 12 to 24 hours by phosphorylation-induced retardation of polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic mobility. The RA-induced increased RAF phosphorylation is still apparent after 72 hours of treatment when most cells are differentiated and G0 arrested. There is a progressive dose-response relationship with 10(-8), 10(-7), and 10(-6) M RA. The RA-induced RAF phosphorylation corresponds to increased in vitro kinase activity. Inhibition of MEK with a PD98059 dose which inhibits ERK2 phosphorylation and subsequent cell differentiation also inhibits RAF phosphorylation. RA-induced MEK-dependent RAF phosphorylation is not due to changes in the amount of cellular MEK. The induced RAF phosphorylation, as well as anteceding ERK2 activation, depends on ligand-induced activation of both an RARalpha receptor and an RXR receptor. This and the slow kinetics of activation suggest a need for prior RA-induced gene expression. In summary, RA induces a MEK-dependent prolonged RAF activation, whose slow onset occurs after ERK2 activation but still well before cell cycle arrest and cell differentiation. The RA-induced increased RAF phosphorylation thus differs from typical mitogenic growth factor signaling, features that may contribute to cell cycle arrest and differentiation instead of division as the cellular outcome.     

Inhibition of mutant BRAF splice variant signaling by next‐generation,selective RAF inhibitors

Vemurafenib and dabrafenib block MEK‐ERK1/2 signaling and cause tumor regression in the majority of advanced‐stage BRAF^V600E melanoma patients; however, acquired resistance and paradoxical signaling have driven efforts for more potent and selective RAF inhibitors. Next‐generation RAF inhibitors, such as PLX7904 (PB04), effectively inhibit RAF signaling in BRAF^V600E melanoma cells without paradoxical effects in wild‐type cells. Furthermore, PLX7904 blocks the growth of vemurafenib‐resistant BRAF^V600E cells that express mutant NRAS. Acquired resistance to vemurafenib and dabrafenib is also frequently driven by expression of mutation BRAF splice variants; thus, we tested the effects of PLX7904 and its clinical analog, PLX8394 (PB03), in BRAF^V600E splice variant‐mediated vemurafenib‐resistant cells. We show that paradox‐breaker RAF inhibitors potently block MEK‐ERK1/2 signaling, G1/S cell cycle events, survival and growth of vemurafenib/PLX4720‐resistant cells harboring distinct BRAF^V600E splice variants. These data support the further investigation of paradox‐breaker RAF inhibitors as a second‐line treatment option for patients failing on vemurafenib or dabrafenib.     

RAF2 is a RuBisCO assembly factor in Arabidopsis thaliana

Ribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) catalyzes the reaction between gaseous carbon dioxide (CO₂) and ribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate. Although it is one of the most studied enzymes, the assembly mechanisms of the large hexadecameric RuBisCO is still emerging. In bacteria and in the C4 plant Zea mays, a protein with distant homology to p terin‐4α‐c arbinolamine d ehydratase (PCD) has recently been shown to be involved in RuBisCO assembly. However, studies of the homologous PCD‐like protein (RAF2, RuBisCO assembly factor 2) in the C3 plant Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) have so far focused on its role in hormone and stress signaling. We investigated whether A. thalianaRAF2 is also involved in RuBisCO assembly. We localized RAF2 to the soluble chloroplast stroma and demonstrated that raf2 A. thaliana mutant plants display a severe pale green phenotype with reduced levels of stromal RuBisCO. We concluded that the RAF2 protein is probably involved in RuBisCO assembly in the C3 plant A. thaliana.     

Aliphatic acetogenin constituents of avocado fruits inhibit human oral cancer cell proliferation by targeting the EGFR/RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway

Avocado (Persea americana) fruits are consumed as part of the human diet and extracts have shown growth inhibitory effects in various types of human cancer cells, although the effectiveness of individual components and their underlying mechanism are poorly understood. Using activity-guided fractionation of the flesh of avocado fruits, a chloroform-soluble extract (D003) was identified that exhibited high efficacy towards premalignant and malignant human oral cancer cell lines. From this extract, two aliphatic acetogenins of previously known structure were isolated, compounds 1 [(2S,4S)-2,4-dihydroxyheptadec-16-enyl acetate] and 2 [(2S,4S)-2,4-dihydroxyheptadec-16-ynyl acetate]. In this study, we show for the first time that the growth inhibitory efficacy of this chloroform extract is due to blocking the phosphorylation of EGFR (Tyr1173), c-RAF (Ser338), and ERK1/2 (Thr202/Tyr204) in the EGFR/RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK1/2 cancer pathway. Compounds 1 and 2 both inhibited phosphorylation of c-RAF (Ser338) and ERK1/2 (Thr202/Tyr204). Compound 2, but not compound 1, prevented EGF-induced activation of the EGFR (Tyr1173). When compounds 1 and 2 were combined they synergistically inhibited c-RAF (Ser338) and ERK1/2 (Thr202/Tyr204) phosphorylation, and human oral cancer cell proliferation. The present data suggest that the potential anticancer activity of avocado fruits is due to a combination of specific aliphatic acetogenins that target two key components of the EGFR/RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK1/2 cancer pathway.     

肠道病毒71型的RT-PCR诊断及基因特征

2002～2003年从上海市和重庆市手足口病患儿的疱液标本中分离到10株病毒,其中上海9株,重庆1株.利用两对分别针对EV71和Cox.A16病毒VP1区的特异性引物,用RT-PCR方法对病毒进行初步鉴别.根据PCR所用引物及PCR扩增出的产物片段大小不同,可初步判定出EV71和Cox.A16病毒的血清型别.RT-PCR结果提示,上海分离到的9株病毒中,有2株为EV71,其余7株病毒为Cox.A16;重庆分离到的1株病毒为EV71.10株病毒的RT-PCR产物经序列测定和分析证实,PCR定型结果正确,说明PCR法具有很高的特异性,可作为EV71初步鉴定的首选方法.对所分离的3株EV71病毒进行VP1区编码基因全序列的测定和遗传学分析,通过同源性比较和构建系统发生树发现,此3株EV71病毒和中国大陆已发表的7株EV71病毒(SHZH03、SHZH98、SH-F1、SH-F2、SH-H25、SH-H26和CHN-87)全部属于C基因型,与该型代表株比较,同源性为89.3%～94.6%;与A、B基因型代表株比较,同源性为81.3%～84.0%,差异较大.在C基因型中,此3株EV71病毒和中国大陆先前分离的6株病毒(SHZH03、SHZH98、SH-F1、SH-F2、SH-H25、SH-H26)的同源性较高,在94.5%～100%范围内.在系统发生树上,这9株病毒形成一个较独立的分支.与CHN-87株的同源性在92.1%～93.6%之间.与已知的C1、C2、C3亚型代表株比较,同源性在89.3%～92.9%,差异≥7%,因此认为可将这9株病毒划分为C4亚型.上海、重庆和深圳的EV71病毒有较高的同源性,提示该病毒EV71-CA亚型在中国大陆1998～2003年间有较广泛的传播.建立中国流行的EV71病毒毒株库和基因库,对诊断、预防和控制EV71在中国的爆发有重要意义,对加强EV71的实验室诊断、病毒学监测和病毒基因型和亚型的标准命名和分子流行病学研究有重要帮助.     

Antiviral effects of two Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids against enterovirus 71 infection

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a major causative agent for hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), and fatal neurological and systemic complications in children. However, there is currently no clinical approved antiviral drug available for the prevention and treatment of the viral infection. Here, we evaluated the antiviral activities of two Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs), Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3-one,15;26-dihydroxy (GLTA) and Ganoderic acid Y (GLTB), against EV71 infection. The results showed that the two natural compounds display significant anti-EV71 activities without cytotoxicity in human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells as evaluated by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation assay. The mechanisms by which the two compounds affect EV71 infection were further elucidated by three action modes using Ribavirin, a common antiviral drug, as a positive control. The results suggested that GLTA and GLTB prevent EV71 infection through interacting with the viral particle to block the adsorption of virus to the cells. In addition, the interactions between EV71 virion and the compounds were predicated by computer molecular docking, which illustrated that GLTA and GLTB may bind to the viral capsid protein at a hydrophobic pocket (F site), and thus may block uncoating of EV71. Moreover, we demonstrated that GLTA and GLTB significantly inhibit the replication of the viral RNA (vRNA) of EV71 replication through blocking EV71 uncoating. Thus, GLTA and GLTB may represent two potential therapeutic agents to control and treat EV71 infection.     

牛布鲁氏菌病阳性血清国家标准品的研制

手足口病是由多种肠道病毒感染导致的一种急性儿科传染病。近年来,我国肠道病毒71型 (EV71) 手足口病发病率急剧上升,重症病例时有报道,严重威胁儿童健康。临床上对于重症手足口病的治疗缺乏有效手段,主要以对症治疗和支持疗法为主。静脉注射人免疫球蛋白由健康献血员血浆提取纯化而来,含有包括EV71在内的多种肠道病毒的中和抗体,可作为重症手足口病被动免疫和免疫调节的重要手段,值得关注。     

Myristoylation of EV71 VP4 is Essential for Infectivity and Interaction with Membrane Structure

Virologica Sinica - The Enterovirus 71 (EV71) VP4 is co-translationally linked to myristic acid at its amino-terminal glycine residue. However, the role of this myristoylation in the EV71 life...