真菌次级代谢产物11’-deoxyverticillin A(C42)通过降低自噬基因的表达抑制肝炎病毒(HBV)复制

C42属于epipolythiodioxopiperazines(ETPs)二酮呱嗪类化合物,具有多种生物学活性,包括抑制病毒复制;不过其对hepatitis B virus(HBV)复制的影响及机理鲜有报道。自噬是广泛存在于真核细胞、通过溶酶体降解长半衰期蛋白的现象,参与多种生理、病理过程。有研究发现自噬对HBV的复制至关重要。C42是否通过改变自噬来影响此病毒的复制目前还未见报道。在该研究中,我们发现表达HBV基因组的Hep G2.215细胞较原始的Hep G2细胞,自噬体明显增加并伴随着Akt磷酸化的增高。C42可以降低自噬基因LC3-II和p62的水平,同时会影响Akt信号通路。氯喹是一种自噬抑制剂,它的存在可以抑制C42导致的LC3-II降低,表明C42可以引起该细胞的自噬。敲降自噬基因和抑制Akt磷酸化均可以减少HBV-X蛋白表达。而利用氯喹抑制自噬体与溶酶体的融合却提高了HBV-X蛋白水平。由于HBV-X对该病毒的复制至关重要,因此,我们认为,C42通过自噬和Akt信号通路来抑制HBV的复制。     

白藜芦醇经PI3K/Akt/mTOR 信号通路诱导人肾癌786-O细胞自噬

白藜芦醇(resveratrol)可抑制人肾癌786-O细胞增殖,并诱导其凋亡,但是白藜芦醇对786-O细胞自噬(autophagy)的影响及机制尚不清楚。为探究其机制,体外培养786-O细胞,采用CCK-8检测786-O细胞活力;TUNEL染色检测786-O细胞凋亡;透射电子显微镜观察786-O细胞自噬体;吖啶橙染色观察786-O细胞自噬小泡;GFP-LC3质粒转染分析观察786-O细胞自噬体;Western印迹检测LC3、beclin-1、PI3K、p-PI3K、Akt、p-Akt、mTOR和p-mTOR的表达。结果显示,白藜芦醇以浓度和时间依赖性的方式抑制786-O细胞活力,并诱导细胞凋亡;与对照组相比,白藜芦醇使786-O细胞自噬增强;Western印迹结果显示,与对照组相比,白藜芦醇组LC3-II/LC3-I和Beclin-1显著增高(P0.01),表明白藜芦醇导致786-O细胞自噬体积累。与对照组相比,白藜芦醇使786-O细胞的p-PI3K/PI3K,p-Akt/Akt和p-mTOR/mTOR显著降低(P0.01),表明白藜芦醇可通过PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路增强自噬。综上所述,白藜芦醇通过抑制PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路从而诱导786-O细胞自噬。     

肠道病毒A71型亚单位蛋白对RD细胞自噬活化的影响

肠道病毒A71型（Enterovirus-A71, EV-A71）能够活化宿主细胞的自噬并依赖自噬促进其复制,然而EV-A71的亚单位蛋白对自噬的活化目前仍不清楚。为探讨EV-A71亚单位蛋白对人横纹肌肉瘤（Human rhabdomyosarcoma, RD）细胞自噬活化的影响,将EV-A71的亚单位蛋白重组真核质粒转染至RD细胞,采用抑制剂MK-2206阻断PI3K/Akt途径,共聚焦显微镜和免疫印迹检测自噬活化。过表达EV-A71亚单位蛋白的RD细胞中PI3K/Akt途径、p38、JNK和ERK途径均呈现不同程度活化,同时RD细胞呈现出绿色荧光表明自噬发生活化,特别是EV-A71的VP2和2A。EV-A71亚单位蛋白使LC3-II/LC3-I的转化水平提升,EV-A71亚单位蛋白（VP2、VP3、VP4、2A、2B和2C）显著提升p62的表达水平,EV-A71 VP1显著下调p62的表达水平但显著上调LAMP-1和LAMP-2的表达水平。阻断PI3K/Akt途径后,过表达EV-A71亚单位蛋白的RD细胞绿色荧光强度显著减弱、自噬被阻断,同时LC3-II/LC3-I的转化水平显著降...     

PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路在脂多糖诱导的大鼠肝星状细胞自噬中的作用

该文探讨了磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)/蛋白激酶B(Akt)/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)信号通路在脂多糖(LPS)诱导的大鼠肝星状细胞-T6(HSC-T6)自噬中的作用。体外培养HSCT6细胞,随机分为对照组、LPS组、雷帕霉素(Rapamycin, Rapa)组、LPS+Rapa组、LY294002组、LPS+LY294002组, SC79组、LPS+SC79组,各组经相应处理后,单丹磺酰尸胺(MDC)染色法观察自噬溶酶体变化;细胞免疫荧光法检测各组微管相关蛋白轻链Ⅱ(LC3 Ⅱ)表达; Western blot检测各组通路蛋白p-Akt、p-mTOR、Akt、mTOR及自噬相关蛋白LC3 Ⅱ、Beclin1的表达; qRT-PCR检测各组LC3 Ⅱ和Beclin1 mRNA的表达。结果显示,LPS+Rapa组、LPS+LY294002组较LPS组的自噬溶酶体、LC3 Ⅱ荧光亮点含量无明显差异(P0.05), LPS+SC79组较LPS组的自噬溶酶体、LC3 Ⅱ荧光亮点含量明显减少(P0.05); Western blot显示, LPS+Rapa组、LPS+LY294002组较LPS组LC3 Ⅱ、Beclin1、p-Akt、p-mTOR蛋白表达水平无明显差异(P0.05), LPS+SC79组较LPS组LC3 Ⅱ、Beclin1含量明显减少, p-Akt、p-mTOR蛋白表达水平明显增加(P0.05); qRT-PCR显示LPS+Rapa组、LPS+LY294002组较LPS组LC3 Ⅱ、Beclin1 mRNA含量无明显差异(P0.05), LPS+SC79组较LPS组LC3 Ⅱ、Beclin1 mRNA含量明显减少(P0.05)。该项研究结果表明,LPS可能通过抑制PI3K/Akt/mTOR信号通路促进HSC-T6细胞自噬。     

HSP27过表达抑制脑心肌炎病毒复制的作用初探

已有研究表明,HSP27在一些病毒的生命周期中发挥着重要作用,但它对于脑心肌炎病毒(encephalomyocarditis virus,EMCV)的调控作用尚不明晰。该研究通过构建人源HSP27的表达质粒pCMV-Myc-HSP27并于HEK293细胞中表达后,接种EMCV检测病毒的复制及相关通路蛋白表达情况。结果显示,过表达HSP27可以抑制EMCV在宿主细胞中的复制,进一步分析表明,HSP27可能是通过正调控IFN-β信号通路中接头分子MAVS、TBK1、IRF3的表达和阻止自噬体与溶酶体的融合实现对EMCV复制的负调控作用。总之,该研究首次表明,HSP27抑制EMCV复制是通过IFN-β信号通路及自噬途径来实现的,这些发现为揭示EMCV感染中宿主因子的调控作用和潜在的抗病毒靶点提供新的见解。     

富马酸二甲酯对人角质形成细胞HaCat生长和自噬的影响

该文探讨了富马酸二甲酯(dimethyl fumarate,DMF)对人角质形成细胞Ha Cat增殖、细胞周期和细胞自噬的调节作用以及相关机理的影响。应用MTT实验和流式细胞术分别检测细胞增殖和细胞周期的变化。并用免疫荧光染色、Western blot技术检测自噬相关蛋白的水平与分布。结果显示,DMF在25μmol/L时,可较明显地抑制Ha Cat细胞的增殖,当浓度达到150μmol/L时,细胞几乎完全失去增殖能力。低剂量DMF(25~50μmol/L)同时也可显著抑制Ha Cat细胞DNA合成,与对照组相比,S期细胞减少50%(P0.01),而G1期细胞增高近20%(P0.05);高剂量DMF(100μmol/L)可导致G2与M期阻滞(P0.01),而氧自由基抑制剂NAC(N-Acetyl-L-cysteine)预处理则几乎完全逆转这一现象。DMF处理诱导细胞出现明显的自噬特征,表现为LC3-II(microtubule associated protein 1light chain 3-II)免疫荧光染色呈点状分布并与溶酶体颗粒重合,LC3蛋白质脂化为LC3-II以及自噬相关蛋白成熟型Cathepsin D、LAMP1(lysosome-associated membrane glycoprotein 1)、p62水平增加。此外,DMF对ERK(extracellular regulated protein kinases)、AKT(phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase)以及m TOR(mammalian target of rapamycin)信号相关蛋白的磷酸化也有显著的抑制作用。这些结果表明,DMF可显著抑制人角质形成细胞增殖、抑制DNA合成、诱导细胞发生自噬,其机理可能与DMF抑制AKT/m TOR、ERK信号功能有关。     

氯喹抑制自噬增强宫颈癌细胞SiHa对CPT处理的敏感性

自噬诱导是肿瘤细胞对化疗药物抵抗性的原因之一,该研究探讨溶酶体抑制剂氯喹对喜树碱(camptothecin,CPT)诱导的宫颈癌细胞Si Ha死亡的增敏效果。CPT和/或氯喹处理宫颈癌Si Ha细胞,MTT法检测细胞增殖,DAPI和TUNEL染色观察细胞凋亡,Western blot和免疫荧光检测自噬及凋亡相关蛋白。结果发现,CPT处理后,Si Ha细胞MAP1LC3B荧光点和LC3II(microtubuleassociated protein light chain 3II)蛋白水平增加,p62荧光点和蛋白质水平则减少;而采用氯喹特异抑制自噬后,可明显提高CPT诱导的细胞凋亡、caspase-9的激活和PARP(poly ADP-ribose polymerase)的切割,而全长caspase-2水平显著下降。以上结果提示,氯喹可通过抑制细胞自噬而增强宫颈癌细胞株Si Ha对CPT诱导细胞凋亡的敏感性。     

运动调控自噬溶酶体通路改善阿尔茨海默病的机制

阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease, AD）是一种常见的神经退行性疾病。自噬溶酶体功能异常阻碍了细胞对神经毒性物质的降解，是导致AD发生的关键因素。运动作为一种非药物治疗手段，可以通过激活PI3K/Akt、AMPK等相关信号通路上调自噬活性，并通过促进TFEB的核易位增强自噬溶酶体功能，提高对异常聚集蛋白和受损伤细胞器的降解，保护神经元，改善AD患者的认知功能障碍。本文阐述了自噬溶酶体功能障碍在AD发生发展中的作用，以及运动调控自噬溶酶体通路改善AD作用机制，旨在为AD的预防和治疗提供新策略。     

谷氨酰胺激活PI3K/Akt信号通路促进痘苗病毒复制

谷氨酰胺(glutamine,Gln)在细胞生长和代谢过程中起重要作用,能够激活磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶(phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase,PI3K)/蛋白激酶B(protein kinase B,Akt)/哺乳动物雷帕霉素蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,m TOR)信号通路。多种病毒能通过PI3K/Akt信号通路维持细胞生存和抑制细胞凋亡,维持病毒的感染。为了探讨Gln在痘苗病毒(vaccinia virus strain western reserve,WR)感染人肺癌细胞A549过程中的调控作用及其潜在机制,该文通过蛋白免疫印迹(Western blot)检测PI3K/Akt信号通路蛋白质磷酸化水平,流式细胞术检测细胞阳性率,结晶紫染色检测WR滴度,实时定量PCR(quantitative Real-time PCR,q PCR)检测WR基因E3L和A46R m RNA水平。结果显示,Gln处理后PI3K/Akt信号通路蛋白质磷酸化水平显著升高。抑制PI3K/Akt信号通路后,细胞阳性率显著降低(P0.05),WR滴度显著降低(P0.05),WR基因E3L和A46R m RNA水平显著降低(P0.05)。该研究结果表明,Gln通过激活PI3K/Akt信号通路从而促进A549细胞中WR的复制。     

细胞自噬促进柯萨奇病毒B3复制的研究

本研究探索柯萨奇病毒B3(Coxsackievirus B3,CVB3)感染引起的自噬与病毒复制之间的关系。CVB3感染HeLa细胞,并在病毒感染后6 h、8 h和10 h时检测LC3-Ⅰ蛋白、LC3-Ⅱ蛋白和p62蛋白的表达水平。结果显示CVB3病毒感染促使LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ比值升高,同时降低p62蛋白的表达。分别将自噬诱导剂雷帕霉素(Rapamy-cin)、自噬抑制剂3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-Methyladenine,3MA)或溶酶体抑制剂阿洛司他丁(Aloxistatin,E46D)预处理HeLa细胞2 h,CVB3感染药物处理细胞并在病毒感染6 h后收集细胞、检测CVB3病毒VP1蛋白的表达。结果显示雷帕霉素和E64D促使CVB3病毒VP1蛋白表达增加,而3MA降低CVB3病毒VP1蛋白的表达。本研究得出结论 CVB3病毒感染诱导自噬进而促进病毒复制。     

Cadmium results in accumulation of autophagosomes-dependent apoptosis through activating Akt-impaired autophagic flux in neuronal cells

Environmental exposure to cadmium (Cd) links to neurodegenerative disorders. Autophagy plays an important role in controlling cell survival/death. However, how autophagy contributes to Cd's neurotoxicity remains enigmatic. Here, we show that Cd induced significant increases in autophagosomes with a concomitant elevation of LC3-II and p62 in PC12 cells and primary neurons. Using autophagy inhibitor 3-MA, we demonstrated that Cd-increased autophagosomes contributed to neuronal apoptosis. Impairment of Cd on autophagic flux was evidenced by co-localization of mCherry and GFP tandem-tagged LC3 puncta in the cells. This is further supported by the findings that administration of chloroquine (CQ) potentiated the basic and Cd-elevated LC3-II and p62 levels, autophagosome accumulation and cell apoptosis, whereas rapamycin relieved the effects in the cells in response to Cd. Subsequently, we noticed that Cd evoked the phosphorylation of Akt and BECN1. Silencing BECN1 and especially expression of mutant BECN1 (Ser295A) attenuated Cd-increased autophagosomes and cell death. Of note, inhibition of Akt with Akt inhibitor X, or ectopic expression of dominant negative Akt (dn-Akt), in the presence or absence of 3-MA, significantly alleviated Cd-triggered phosphorylation of Akt and BECN1, autophagosomes, and apoptosis. Importantly, we found that Cd activation of Akt functioned in impairing autophagic flux. Collectively, these results indicate that Cd results in accumulation of autophagosomes-dependent apoptosis through activating Akt-impaired autophagic flux in neuronal cells. Our findings underscore that inhibition of Akt to improve autophagic flux is a promising strategy against Cd-induced neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration.     

乙肝病毒感染对细胞基本自噬的影响

【目的】慢性乙肝病毒(Hepatitis B virus,HBV)感染在肝硬化和肝癌的发生过程中起着重要的作用,通过研究HBV感染对细胞基本自噬的影响,为HBV感染诱发肝癌以及HBV的免疫逃逸机理研究提供新的思路。【方法】本研究利用乙肝病毒表达质粒瞬时或稳定转染不同肝细胞,通过计数绿色荧光蛋白(greenfluorescent protein,GFP)聚集数目检测自噬小体形成,western blot检测LC3(microtubule-associated proteinlight chain 3,微管相关蛋白质轻链3)脂酰化和p62的降解,通过构建HBV B型和C型X蛋白(HBx)的表达质粒并瞬时转染肝癌细胞和正常肝细胞,对不同基因型X蛋白对细胞自噬的影响进行了分析。【结果】乙肝病毒感染后促进了LC3的脂酰化和p62的降解,增加了自噬小体的形成,增强了细胞的基本自噬。进一步研究发现,HBV感染增强的细胞基本自噬水平由HBx所引发,且C型HBx比B型对细胞基本自噬的增加更加显著。【结论】HBV通过HBx增强细胞的基本自噬,且不同基因型HBx对细胞基本自噬的增强程度不同,为进一步阐明HBV感染机理奠定了基础。     

Subversion of cellular autophagy machinery by hepatitis B virus for viral envelopment

Autophagy is a conserved eukaryotic mechanism that mediates the removal of long-lived cytoplasmic macromolecules and damaged organelles via a lysosomal degradative pathway. Recently, a multitude of studies have reported that viral infections may have complex interconnections with the autophagic process. The findings reported here demonstrate that hepatitis B virus (HBV) can enhance the autophagic process in hepatoma cells without promoting protein degradation by the lysosome. Mutation analysis showed that HBV small surface protein (SHBs) was required for HBV to induce autophagy. The overexpression of SHBs was sufficient to induce autophagy. Furthermore, SHBs could trigger unfolded protein responses (UPR), and the blockage of UPR signaling pathways abrogated the SHB-induced lipidation of LC3-I. Meanwhile, the role of the autophagosome in HBV replication was examined. The inhibition of autophagosome formation by the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) or small interfering RNA duplexes targeting the genes critical for autophagosome formation (Beclin1 and ATG5 genes) markedly inhibited HBV production, and the induction of autophagy by rapamycin or starvation greatly contributed to HBV production. Furthermore, evidence was provided to suggest that the autophagy machinery was required for HBV envelopment but not for the efficiency of HBV release. Finally, SHBs partially colocalized and interacted with autophagy protein LC3. Taken together, these results suggest that the host's autophagy machinery is activated during HBV infection to enhance HBV replication.     

Autophagy suppression sensitizes glioma cells to IMP dehydrogenase inhibition-induced apoptotic death

We investigated the role of autophagy, a process of controlled self-digestion, in the in vitro anticancer action of the inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) inhibitor ribavirin. Ribavirin-triggered oxidative stress, caspase activation, and apoptotic death in U251 human glioma cells were associated with the induction of autophagy, as confirmed by intracellular acidification, appearance of autophagic vesicles, conversion of microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-I to autophagosome-associated LC3-II, and degradation of autophagic target p62/sequestosome 1. Ribavirin downregulated the activity of autophagy-inhibiting mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), as indicated by a decrease in phosphorylation of the mTORC1 substrate ribosomal p70S6 kinase and reduction of the mTORC1-activating Src/Akt signaling. Guanosine supplementation inhibited, while IMPDH inhibitor tiazofurin mimicked ribavirin-mediated autophagy induction, suggesting the involvement of IMPDH blockade in the observed effect. Autophagy suppression by ammonium chloride, bafilomycin A1, or RNA interference-mediated knockdown of LC3 sensitized glioma cells to ribavirin-induced apoptosis. Ribavirin also induced cytoprotective autophagy associated with Akt/mTORC1 inhibition in C6 rat glioma cells. Our data demonstrate that ribavirin-triggered Akt/mTORC1-dependent autophagy counteracts apoptotic death of glioma cells, indicating autophagy suppression as a plausible therapeutic strategy for sensitization of cancer cells to IMPDH inhibition.     

Hepatitis C virus present in the sera of infected patients interferes with the autophagic process of monocytes impairing their in-vitro differentiation into dendritic cells

Autophagy has a pivotal role in the in-vitro monocyte differentiation into macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), the most powerful antigen presenting cells (APC) with the unique capacity to initiate an adaptive immune response. Autophagy is also a mechanism by which these cells of innate immunity may degrade intracellular pathogens and mediate the antigen processing and presentation, essential to clear an infection. For these reasons, pathogens have learned how to manipulate autophagy for their own survival. In this study we found that hepatitis C virus (HCV), derived from sera of infected patients, blocked the autophagic process in differentiating monocytes, seen as LC3 II and p62 expression levels. The suppression of autophagy correlated with a reduction of cathepsins D, B and proteolytic activity, and resulted in impairment of monocyte differentiation into DCs, as indicated by the reduction of CD1a acquirement. These data suggest that the block of autophagy might be one of the underlying mechanisms of the HCV-mediated immune subversion that frequently leads to viral persistence and chronic hepatitis.     

The role of autophagy in the pathogenesis of exposure keratitis

Incomplete tear film spreading and eyelid closure can cause defective renewal of the ocular surface and air exposure‐induced epithelial keratopathy (EK). In this study, we characterized the role of autophagy in mediating the ocular surface changes leading to EK. Human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) and C57BL/6 mice were employed as EK models, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) evaluated changes in HCECs after air exposure. Each of these models was treated with either an autophagy inhibitor [chloroquine (CQ) or 3‐methyladenine (3‐MA)] or activator [Rapamycin (Rapa)]. Immunohistochemistry assessed autophagy‐related proteins, LC3 and p62 expression levels. Western blotting confirmed the expression levels of the autophagy‐related proteins [Beclin1 and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)], the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress‐related proteins (PERK, eIF2α and CHOP) and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway‐related proteins. Real‐time quantitative PCR (qRT‐PCR) determined IL‐1β, IL‐6 and MMP9 gene expression levels. The TUNEL assay detected apoptotic cells. TEM identified autophagic vacuoles in both EK models. Increased LC3 puncta formation and decreased p62 immunofluorescent staining and Western blotting confirmed autophagy induction. CQ treatment increased TUNEL positive staining in HCECs, while Rapa had an opposite effect. Similarly, CQ injection enhanced air exposure‐induced apoptosis and inflammation in the mouse corneal epithelium, which was inhibited by Rapa treatment. Furthermore, the phosphorylation status of PERK and eIF2α and CHOP expression increased in both EK models indicating that ER stress‐induced autophagy promoted cell survival. Taken together, air exposure‐induced autophagy is indispensable for the maintenance of corneal epithelial physiology and cell survival.     

PML-RARα enhances constitutive autophagic activity through inhibiting the Akt/mTOR pathway

Autophagy is a highly conserved, closely regulated homeostatic cellular activity that allows for the bulk degradation of long-lived proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. Its roles in cancer initiation and progression and in determining the response of tumor cells to anticancer therapy are complicated, and only limited investigation has been conducted on the potential significance of autophagy in the pathogenesis and therapeutic response of acute myeloid leukemia. Here we demonstrate that the inducible or transfected expression of the acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL)-specific PML-RARα, but not PLZF-RARα or NPM-RARα, fusion protein upregulates constitutive autophagy activation in leukemic and nonleukemic cells, as evaluated by hallmarks for autophagy including transmission electron microscopy. The significant increase in autophagic activity is also found in the leukemic cells-infiltrated bone marrow and spleen from PML-RARα-transplanted leukemic mice. The autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine significantly abrogates the autophagic events upregulated by PML-RARα, while the autophagic flux assay reveals that the fusion protein induces autophagy by increasing the on-rate of autophagic sequestration. Furthermore, this modulation of autophagy by PML-RARα is possibly mediated by a decreased activation of the Akt/mTOR pathway. Finally, we also show that autophagy contributes to the anti-apoptotic function of the PML-RARα protein. Given the critical role of the PML-RARα oncoprotein in APL pathogenesis, this study suggests an important role of autophagy in the development and treatment of this disease.     

Visualizing the autophagy pathway in avian cells and its application to studying infectious bronchitis virus

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular response to starvation that leads to the degradation of organelles and long-lived proteins in lysosomes and is important for cellular homeostasis, tissue development and as a defense against aggregated proteins, damaged organelles and infectious agents. Although autophagy has been studied in many animal species, reagents to study autophagy in avian systems are lacking. Microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (MAP1LC3/LC3) is an important marker for autophagy and is used to follow autophagosome formation. Here we report the cloning of avian LC3 paralogs A, B and C from the domestic chicken, Gallus gallus domesticus, and the production of replication-deficient, recombinant adenovirus vectors expressing these avian LC3s tagged with EGFP and FLAG-mCherry. An additional recombinant adenovirus expressing EGFP-tagged LC3B containing a G120A mutation was also generated. These vectors can be used as tools to visualize autophagosome formation and fusion with endosomes/lysosomes in avian cells and provide a valuable resource for studying autophagy in avian cells. We have used them to study autophagy during replication of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). IBV induced autophagic signaling in mammalian Vero cells but not primary avian chick kidney cells or the avian DF1 cell line. Furthermore, induction or inhibition of autophagy did not affect IBV replication, suggesting that classical autophagy may not be important for virus replication. However, expression of IBV nonstructural protein 6 alone did induce autophagic signaling in avian cells, as seen previously in mammalian cells. This may suggest that IBV can inhibit or control autophagy in avian cells, although IBV did not appear to inhibit autophagy induced by starvation or rapamycin treatment.     

Bovine herpesvirus type 4 infection modulates autophagy in a permissive cell line

Bovine herpesvirus type 4 (BoHV‐4), like other herpesviruses, induces a series of alterations in the host cell that modify the intracellular environment in favor of viral replication, survival and spread. This research examined the impact of BoHV‐4 infection on autophagy in BoHV‐4 infected Madin Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells. Protein extracts of BoHV‐4 infected and control MDBK cells were subjected to Western blot. The concentrations of the autophagy and apoptosis‐related proteins Beclin 1, p21, PI3 kinase, Akt1/2, mTOR, phospho mTOR, p62 and the light chain three (LC3) were normalized to the actin level and expressed as the densitometric ratio. Western blot analysis of virus‐infected cells revealed that autophagic degradation pathway was induced in the late phase of BoHV‐4 infection. After 48 h post‐infection the protein LC3II, which is essential for autophagy was found to be markedly increased, while infection of MDBK cells with BoHV‐4 resulted in a depletion of p62 levels. Becline 1, PI3 kinase, Akt1/2 and p21 expression increased between 24 and 48 h post‐infection. Surprisingly, mTOR and its phosphorylated form, which are negative regulators of autophagy, also increased after 24 h post‐infection. In conclusion, our findings suggest that BoHV‐4 has developed mechanisms for modulation of autophagy that are probably part of a strategy designed to enhance viral replication and to evade the immune system. Additional studies on the relationship between autophagy and BoHV‐4 replication and survival, in both lytic and latent replication phases, are needed to understand the role of autophagy in BoHV‐4 pathogenesis. J. Cell. Biochem. 114: 1529–1535, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.