Toll样受体识别机制及其生物学意义

Toll样受体介导的信号转导通路在对抗外来病原体的天然免疫应答中起重要作用。Toll样受体是一个天然模板识别受体家族,能识别固有性模板(微生物和哺乳动物所共有的病原相联的分子模板PAMPs)。Toll样受体通过巨噬细胞和其他免疫细胞来识别,其中TLR4识别内毒素、TLR2识别肽聚糖、TLR9识别细菌DNA、TLR5识别鞭毛蛋白、TLR3识别双链RNA等。本探讨了多种Toll受体家族成员在动物体内识别机理及功能,概述了其应用研究进展。     

TLR4及其作用的研究进展

Toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)因其积极的研究成果而成为近年来广受关注的一种病原体识别受体,TLRs分布相对比较广泛,不但在小肠上皮、呼吸上皮细胞表达,同时也在血管内皮细胞、树突状细胞[1]、大鼠脾及心肌细胞[2]等细胞中表达.研究证实,它属于模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecule pattern,PAMPs)可被其辨别,然后引发一系列的信号转导,TLRs 是备受关注的一种PRRs.Toll样受体4(toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)是TLRs家族中极为重要的成员,是天然免疫系统识别病原微生物的主要受体,在天然免疫反应中扮演着关键性作用.细菌脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)作为一类受体,主要作用是介导信号跨膜转导,尤其对革兰氏阴性菌所引起的感染性炎症起着极为关键的作用.由于近年来对TLR4介导的信号转导及TLR4与疾病的关系研究成为热点,本文就TLR4的信号转导、TLR4与LPS的关系及TLR4信号通路调节进行综述如下.     

TLR4在哺乳动物对脂多糖反应中的作用

Toll信号转导通路在果蝇的发育和天然免疫反应中起重要作用.最近在小鼠进行的定点克隆研究表明Lps位座编码一种Toll样受体TLR4,该受体作为LPS受体复合物的跨膜成分而转导脂多糖(LPS)信号,而其相关蛋白TLR2则在其他病原体微生物介导的细胞反应中起作用.TLR4的发现使我们对LPS信号转导通路的认识前进了一大步.     

Toll样受体通路调节Tregs功能的研究进展

模式识别受体Toll样受体(Toll like receptors,TLRs)是固有免疫中免疫受体的代表,进化上十分保守,对生物体的生存极为重要。TLRs通过内源或外源的配体启动信号转导,激活下游一系列重要的基因表达与活化。研究表明调节性T细胞(Regulatory T cell,Treg)在维持机体外周免疫耐受和阻止移植排斥反应等方面发挥核心作用。Treg细胞表达某些TLRs,包括TLR2、TLR4、TLR5、TLR7、TLR8、TLR9等。TLRs的活化可能直接或间接地影响(主要是活化) Treg的增殖和免疫抑制功能,这种调节与感染、自身免疫病和癌症的发生密切相关。其中热休克蛋白作为TLRs配体分子对于Treg的调节发挥了重要的作用。因此,了解TLRs通路对研究Treg免疫调控机制、新药物研发和靶向治疗有重大意义。文中简要介绍了TLRs通路调节Treg免疫功能的相关研究进展。     

Toll样受体在烟曲霉侵染宿主细胞过程中作用的研究进展

烟曲霉侵染宿主细胞时伴有明显的细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排,而重要模式识别受体PRRs(pattern recognition receptors)之一,Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLR)参与调节病原细菌诱导的宿主细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排,其中TLR2和TLR4两亚型可以识别烟曲霉的病原相关分子模式PAMP(pathogen-assosiated molecular patterns),并诱发炎症因子表达等一系列效应信号,在宿主细胞抗烟曲霉天然免疫中发挥重要作用,但在烟曲霉内化侵入过程中TLR能否特异性介导细胞肌动蛋白骨架重排尚不清楚。因此,研究揭示TLR激活在烟曲霉侵入宿主细胞的调控作用,对寻找可能的抗真菌药物作用靶点具有重要意义。     

Toll样受体4与肝损伤的研究进展

Toll样受体4((toll like receptor4,TLR4)是内毒素(LPS)的关键受体,为Toll蛋白家族中的一个成员,是联系固有免疫和适应性免疫的纽带。TLR4主要表达于髓源性细胞,其启动的胞内信号转导在肝损伤的发生和发展过程中发挥重要作用。这一信号转导途径主要通过NF-κB、p38、JNK等的激活,使细胞产生炎症转录因子,介导肝脏炎症。TLR4与氧化应激的相互作用,使得肝脏对TLR4的配体及细胞因子的敏感性增加,从而加重肝脏损伤。随着TLR4在肝损伤中的作用进一步阐明,其在肝脏疾病中的治疗作用将会产生广阔的应用前景。     

病原真菌感染与TOLL样受体

TOLL样受体(TLR)是参与天然免疫的主要模式识别受体之一,与许多微生物病原体及其产物的病原相关分子模式PAMP结合后通过MyD88依赖性或非依赖性途径启动宿主胞内信号传导途径,引发一系列生物学效应。白色念珠菌表面的特征性糖磷脂甘露聚糖可被TLR2、TLR4识别,诱导前炎性细胞因子的释放及促进中性粒细胞的聚集等来介导宿主的抗真菌免疫反应。烟曲霉则可能利用表型转换(酵母样与菌丝态),通过不同TLRs逃避宿主天然免疫系统的识别。新型隐球菌的多糖荚膜成分葡糖醛氧化甘露聚糖GXM可与TLR2、TLR4、CD14结合,在单核细胞、巨噬细胞对GXM的内化、吞噬中起重要作用,而不是诱导细胞因子的分泌;酿酒酵母胞壁成分酵母多糖则可激活TLR2、TLR6异源二聚体。总之,TLR与真菌配体相互作用的具体机制及其活化后胞内信号传导调控机制的深入研究与分析,对临床真菌病的免疫调节及治疗具有重要意义。     

Toll样受体及其信号转导

Toll样受体(TLR)介导着绝大部分哺乳动物、昆虫及植物的宿主防御. TLR4与配体结合涉及膜抗原CD14和分泌蛋白MD-2的调节并一起形成受体复合物, 然后与接头分子MyD88结合, 使IRAK磷酸化, 再使TRAF6寡聚化, 随后激活控制着各种效应基因表达的转录因子NF-κB.     

Toll样受体与抗结核感染免疫

结核分枝杆菌(MTB)是结核病的致病菌,其发病机制仍未阐明。Toll样受体(TLR)蛋白家族属于动物模式识别受体家族。研究表明,TLR对先天免疫和获得性免疫都有调控作用,与抗结核感染免疫有关的主要是TLR2和TLR4。对TLR的研究为MTB诱导先天免疫反应机制的阐明以及治疗方法的进步提供了新的思路。     

Toll样受体4介导内毒素对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活

为探讨Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)在内毒素(LPS)对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用,以LPS刺激培养的ECV-304细胞为模型,运用RT-PCR和蛋白质印迹技术检测了内皮细胞TLR4的表达及LPS对其表达的影响.同时利用基因转染和抗体阻断方法进一步观察了TLR4在LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活中的作用.研究发现,LPS能明显上调内皮细胞TLR4的表达,呈一定的时间和剂量依赖性.转染TLR4的功能突变体和运用抗TLR4单抗能明显抑制LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB的激活.提示TLR4介导了LPS对内皮细胞NF-κB激活,可能在LPS对内皮细胞激活/损伤效应中具有重要的地位.     

Tissue expression of human Toll-like receptors and differential regulation of Toll-like receptor mRNAs in leukocytes in response to microbes, their products, and cytokines.

Members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family mediate dorsoventral patterning and cellular adhesion in insects as well as immune responses to microbial products in both insects and mammals. TLRs are characterized by extracellular leucine-rich repeat domains and an intracellular signaling domain that shares homology with cytoplasmic sequences of the mammalian IL-1 receptor and plant disease resistance genes. Ten human TLRs have been cloned as well as RP105, a protein similar to TLR4 but lacking the intracellular signaling domain. However, only five TLRs have described functions as receptors for bacterial products (e.g., LPS, lipoproteins). To identify potential sites of action, we used quantitative real-time RT-PCR to examine systematically the expression of mRNAs encoding all known human TLRs, RP105, and several other proteins important in TLR functions (e.g., MD-1, MD-2, CD14, MyD88). Most tissues tested expressed at least one TLR, and several expressed all (spleen, peripheral blood leukocytes). Analysis of TLR expression in fractionated primary human leukocytes (CD4(+), CD8(+), CD19(+), monocytes, and granulocytes) indicates that professional phagocytes express the greatest variety of TLR mRNAs although several TLRs appear more restricted to B cells, suggesting additional roles for TLRs in adaptive immunity. Monocyte-like THP-1 cells regulate TLR mRNA levels in response to a variety of stimuli including phorbol esters, LPS, bacterial lipoproteins, live bacteria, and cytokines. Furthermore, addition of Escherichia coli to human blood ex vivo caused distinct changes in TLR expression, suggesting that important roles exist for these receptors in the establishment and resolution of infections and inflammation.     

Suppression of homodimerization of toll-like receptor 4 by isoliquiritigenin

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play important inductive roles in innate immune responses for host defense against invading microbial pathogens. Activation of TLR4 by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces dimerization of TLR4 and, subsequently, activation of downstream signaling pathways including nuclear factor-kappa B and interferon regulatory factor 3. TLR4 dimerization may be an early regulatory event in activating signaling pathways induced by LPS. Here, biochemical evidence is reported that isoliquiritigenin, one of the major ingredients derived from licorice root, inhibits LPS-induced TLR4 dimerization resulting in inhibition of nuclear factor-kappa B and interferon regulatory factor 3 activation, and cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression. These results suggest that isoliquiritigenin modulates TLR-mediated signaling pathways at the receptor level. Furthermore, these results suggest that TLRs themselves may be important targets for the prevention of chronic inflammatory diseases.     

Pulmonary surfactant protein D inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory cell responses by altering LPS binding to its receptors

Pulmonary surfactant protein D (SP-D) is a member of the collectin family that plays an important role in regulating innate immunity of the lung. We examined the mechanisms by which SP-D modulates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-elicited inflammatory cell responses. SP-D bound to a complex of recombinant soluble forms of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and MD-2 with high affinity and down-regulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion and NF-kappaB activation elicited by rough and smooth LPS, in alveolar macrophages and TLR4/MD-2-transfected HEK293 cells. Cell surface binding of both serotypes of LPS to TLR4/MD-2-expressing cells was attenuated by SP-D. In addition, SP-D significantly reduced MD-2 binding to both serotypes of LPS. A chimera containing the N-terminal region and the collagenous domain of surfactant protein A, and the coiled-coil neck and lectin domains of SP-D, was a weak inhibitor of LPS-induced cell responses and MD-2 binding to LPS, compared with native SP-D. The collagenase-resistant fragment consisting of the neck plus the carbohydrate recognition domain of SP-D also was a very weak inhibitor of LPS activation. This study demonstrates that SP-D down-regulates LPS-elicited inflammatory responses by altering LPS binding to its receptors and reveals the importance of the correct oligomeric structure of the protein in this process.     

A protein associated with toll-like receptor 4 (PRAT4A) regulates cell surface expression of TLR4

TLRs recognize microbial products. Their subcellular distribution is optimized for microbial recognition. Little is known, however, about mechanisms regulating the subcellular distribution of TLRs. LPS is recognized by the receptor complex consisting of TLR4 and MD-2. Although MD-2, a coreceptor for TLR4, enhances cell surface expression of TLR4, an additional mechanism regulating TLR4 distribution has been suggested. We show here that PRAT4A, a novel protein associated with TLR4, regulates cell surface expression of TLR4. PRAT4A is associated with the immature form of TLR4 but not with MD-2 or TLR2. PRAT4A knockdown abolished LPS responsiveness in a cell line expressing TLR4/MD-2, probably due to the lack of cell surface TLR4. PRAT4A knockdown down-regulated cell surface TLR4/MD-2 on dendritic cells. These results demonstrate a novel mechanism regulating TLR4/MD-2 expression on the cell surface.     

Gene expressions of Toll-like receptor 2, but not Toll-like receptor 4, is induced by LPS and inflammatory cytokines in mouse macrophages

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of mammalian homologues of Drosophila Toll and play important roles in host defense. Two of the TLRs, TLR2 and TLR4, mediate the responsiveness to LPS. Here the gene expression of TLR2 and TLR4 was analyzed in mouse macrophages. Mouse splenic macrophages responded to an intraperitoneal injection or in vitro treatment of LPS by increased gene expression of TLR2, but not TLR4. Treatment of a mouse macrophage cell line with LPS, synthetic lipid A, IL-2, IL-15, IL-1beta, IFN-gamma, or TNF-alpha significantly increased TLR2 mRNA expression, whereas TLR4 mRNA expression remained constant. TLR2 mRNA increase in response to synthetic lipid A was severely impaired in splenic macrophages isolated from TLR4-mutated C3H/HeJ mice, suggesting that TLR4 plays an essential role in the process. Specific inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase and p38 kinase did not significantly inhibit TLR2 mRNA up-regulation by LPS. In contrast, LPS-mediated TLR2 mRNA induction was abrogated by pretreatment with a high concentration of curcumin, suggesting that NF-kappaB activation may be essential for the process. Taken together, our results indicate that TLR2, in contrast to TLR4, can be induced in macrophages in response to bacterial infections and may accelerate the innate immunity against pathogens.     

TLR Ligands Induce Antiviral Responses in Chicken Macrophages

Chicken macrophages express several receptors for recognition of pathogens, including Toll-like receptors (TLRs). TLRs bind to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from bacterial or viral pathogens leading to the activation of macrophages. Macrophages play a critical role in immunity against viruses, including influenza viruses. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that treatment of chicken macrophages with TLR ligands reduces avian influenza replication. Furthermore, we sought to study the expression of some of the key mediators involved in the TLR-mediated antiviral responses of macrophages. Chicken macrophages were treated with the TLR2, 3, 4, 7 and 21 ligands, Pam3CSK4, poly(I:C), LPS, R848 and CpG ODN, respectively, at different doses and time points pre- and post-H4N6 avian influenza virus (AIV) infection. The results revealed that pre-treatment of macrophages with Pam3CSK4, LPS and CpG ODN reduced the replication of AIV in chicken macrophages. In addition, the relative expression of genes involved in inflammatory and antiviral responses were quantified at 3, 8 and 18 hours post-treatment with the TLR2, 4 and 21 ligands. Pam3CSK4, LPS and CpG ODN increased the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, interferon (IFN)-γ, IFN-β and interferon regulatory factor (IFR) 7. The expression of these genes correlated with the reduction of viral replication in macrophages. These results shed light on the process of immunity to AIV in chickens.     

Tissue expression of Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in sporadic human colorectal cancer

Background  

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in innate immunity by sensing a variety of pathogens and inducing acquired immunity. To test our hypothesis that dysregulation of innate immune responses acts to trigger carcinogenesis, we studied the expression of TLR2 and 4 in sporadic human colorectal cancer tissue.     

Retinal Photoreceptor Expresses Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs) and Elicits Innate Responses Following TLR Ligand and Bacterial Challenge

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in host defense against microbial pathogens. Our previous studies have shown that TLRs are expressed on various retinal cells (Microglia and Müller glia) and orchestrate retinal innate responses in bacterial endophthalmitis. In this study, we used a well-characterized mouse cone photoreceptor cell line (661W); and demonstrated that these cells express all known TLRs. Although the stimulation of 661W cells with TLR ligands (Pam3Cys, PolyI:C, LPS, Flagellin, Poly DT, and ODN) did not alter TLR expression, downstream TLR-signaling pathways (NF-κB, p38, and ERK) are activated. Moreover, TLR-activated 661W cells secreted significant amounts of inflammatory mediators (IL-6, IL-1β, MIP-2, and KC) in their culture supernatant, as assessed by ELISA. A similar trend was observed in 661W cells challenged with live bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus). Interestingly, the neutralization of TLR2, a major receptor for S. aureus recognition, did not significantly attenuate bacterial-induced inflammatory mediators, suggesting the existence of TLR2-independent mechanisms in photoreceptor cells. Together, these results indicate that photoreceptors constitutively express functional TLRs and possess the ability to initiate innate responses following pathogen challenge, implicating their role in retinal innate immunity.     

Induction of tolerance to lipopolysaccharide and mycobacterial components in Chinese hamster ovary/CD14 cells is not affected by overexpression of Toll-like receptors 2 or 4

Down-regulation of cell surface expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 following LPS stimulation has been suggested to underlie endotoxin tolerance. In this study, we examined whether overexpression of TLR2 or TLR4 would affect the ability of cells to become tolerant to LPS or the mycobacterial components, arabinose-capped lipoarabinomannan (LAM) and soluble tuberculosis factor (STF). To this end, Chinese hamster ovary/CD14 cells stably transfected with a NF-kappaB-dependent reporter construct, endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecule CD25 (the 3E10 clone), were engineered to overexpress either human TLR2 or TLR4. Transfected TLRs exhibited proper signaling functions, as evidenced by increased LPS responsiveness of 3E10/TLR4 cells and acquisition of sensitivity to TLR2-specific ligands upon transfection of TLR2 into TLR2-negative 3E10 cells. Pretreatment of cells with LPS, LAM, or STF did not modulate TLR2 or TLR4 cell surface expression. Following LPS exposure, 3E10, 3E10/TLR2, and 3E10/TLR4 cells exhibited comparable decreases in LPS-mediated NF-kappaB activation and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase phosphorylation. Likewise, LPS pretreatment profoundly inhibited LPS-induced NF-kappaB translocation in Chinese hamster ovary cells that concomitantly overexpressed human TLR4 and myeloid differentiation protein-2 (MD-2), but failed to modulate TLR4 or MD-2 cell surface expression. Pretreatment of 3E10/TLR2 cells with LAM or STF decreased their NF-kappaB responses induced by subsequent stimulation with these substances or LPS. Conversely, prior exposure of 3E10/TLR2 cells to LPS led to hyporesponsiveness to LPS, LAM, and STF, indicating that LPS and mycobacterial products induce cross-tolerance. Thus, tolerance to LPS and mycobacterial components cannot be attributed solely to a decrease in TLR/MD-2 expression levels, suggesting inhibition of expression or function of other signaling intermediates.