脊椎动物的起源与演化研究进展

脊椎动物的起源与演化历来是进化生命科学的核心命题。近年脊椎动物的起源与演化有重大突破。云南澄江寒武纪化石群中的后口类“皇冠西大动物” ,半索动物“云南虫”和“海口虫” ,尾索动物“始祖长江海鞘” ,头索动物“海口华夏鱼”和“中间型中新鱼” ,脊椎动物“凤姣昆明鱼”和“海口鱼” ,论证了普通无脊椎动物向脊椎动物演化过渡的各种中间类型 ,勾勒出一幅较为完整的早期生命演化谱系。西北大学早期生命研究所舒德干教授基于对靠近脊椎动物“源头”时段软躯体后口动物化石系列的研究以及新的发现提出脊椎动物起源分“五步走”的新假说 ,即在脊椎动物的起源的“四步走”前还有更为原始的“一步” :云南澄江出土的古虫动物门化石很可能代表了原口动物和后口动物间的过渡类型。本文即综述了普通无脊椎动物向脊椎动物演化的研究进展。     

基因倍增和脊椎动物起源

有机体基因复制导致基因复杂性增加及其和脊椎动物起源的关系已经成为进化生物学研究的热点。20世纪70年代由Ohno提出后经Holland等修正的原始脊索动物经两轮基因组复制产生脊椎动物的假设目前已被广泛接受。脊椎动物起源和进化过程中发生过两轮基因组复制的主要证据有三点：（1）据估计脊椎动物基因组内编码基因数目大约相当于果蝇、海鞘等无脊椎动物的4倍;原口动物如果蝇和后口动物如头索动物文昌鱼的基因组大都只有单拷贝的基因,而脊椎动物的基因组则通常有4个同属于一个家族的基因。（2）无脊椎动物如节肢动物、海胆和头索动物文昌鱼都只有一个Hox基因簇,而脊椎动物除鱼类外,有7个具有Hox基因簇,其余都具有4个Hox基因簇。（3）基因作图证明,不但在鱼类和哺乳动物染色体广大片段上基因顺序相似,而且有证据显示哺乳动物基因组不同染色体之间存在相似性。据认为第一次基因倍增发生在脊椎动物与头索动物分开之后,第二次基因倍增发生在有颌类脊椎动物和无颌类脊椎动物分开以后。但是,基因是逐个发生倍增,还是通过基因组内某些DNA片段抑或整个基因组的加倍而实现的,目前还颇有争议。     

脊椎动物的起源与演化研究进展(图版Ⅷ,Ⅸ)

脊椎动物的起源与演化历来是进化生命科学的核心命题。近年脊椎动物的起源与演化有重大突破。云南澄江寒武纪化石群中的后口类“皇冠西大动物”,半索动物“云南虫”和“海口虫”,尾索动物“始祖长江海鞘”,头索动物“海口华夏鱼”和“中间型中新鱼”,脊椎动物“凤姣昆明鱼”和“海口鱼”,论证了普通无脊椎动物向脊椎动物演化过渡的各种中间类型,勾勒出一幅较为完整的早期生命演化谱系。西北大学早期生命研究所舒德干教授基于对靠近脊椎动物“源头”时段软躯体后口动物化石系列的研究以及新的发现提出脊椎动物起源分“五步走”的新假说,即在脊椎动物的起源的“四步走”前还有更为原始的“一步”：云南澄江出土的古虫动物门化石很可能代表了原口动物和后口动物间的过渡类型。本文即综述了普通无脊椎动物向脊椎动物演化的研究进展。     

昆虫孤雌生殖起源的遗传机制和进化意义

孤雌生殖在昆虫纲中有很高的发生比例,昆虫的孤雌生殖能力是造成农林灾害的一个重要而常被忽视的因素.孤雌生殖物种的存在和维持在进化生物学领域是个令人困惑的话题.在一些物种中孤雌生殖的细胞学机制得到了研究和解释,但是对于从两性生殖转换到孤雌生殖的遗传机制却知之甚少.了解孤雌生殖起源的遗传机制和进化意义对于预防农林虫害有着重要的意义.因此,该文就近年来对昆虫孤雌生殖起源的遗传和进化意义的研究做以综述,并就可能的利用前景进行简单讨论.     

脊椎动物基因组与基因复制研究进展

脊椎动物的出现是动物进化历史上一次质的飞跃.由于所有的脊椎动物在其胚胎发育中都呈现连续的解剖学特征,因此过去很多学者都根据现存脊椎动物的形态特征和在其发育过程中的解剖学特征假想原始脊椎动物,并推导其进化过程和起源.近年来的研究表明,通过对脊椎动物和与之亲缘关系接近的物种之间进行基因家族、染色体结构分析,可以对脊椎动物进化提供很多线索和证据.更多的研究表明,脊椎动物在进化过程中很可能发生过整体基因组的复制, 基因和/或基因组的复制可能是引起脊椎动物形体结构复杂性增加的根本原因.因此,基因和基因组的复制正在成为生物进化研究的热点问题.但这两种复制方式中哪一种是产生动物形体结构和功能复杂性增加最重要的原因尚有争论.     

脊椎动物前脑发育的研究进展

胚胎早期神经系统的发生包括两个不可分开的阶段,即活化和转化过程。活化过程开始于原肠胚早期,是神经发生的诱导过程。稍晚的转化阶段发生了神经系统局部结构的形成,即区域化过程。活化的关键是原肠胚中胚层产生诱导性信号分子和外胚层对信号的应答,区域化也是诱导的结果,造成中枢神经系统有各种局部结构,即具有不同细胞谱系和功能的神经元节(neuromere)。     

《自然》：脊椎动物大脑起源研究获进展

芝加哥大学的研究人员在《自然》（Nature）杂志上报告称他们在橡子蠕虫（acorn wirm）发现了一些调控脊椎动物大脑发育的遗传进程。     

脊椎动物性别决定和分化的分子机制研究进展

哺乳类性别决定是多种转录因子和生长因子相继表达和相互调控的结果。SRY的表达启动雄性通路并诱导下游雄性特异基因SOX9、AMH等的表达。FOXL2在雌性未分化性腺表达,WNT-4和DAX1也在雌性性别决定或分化时期表达,表明雌性通路也是受特定基因调控的,而并非“默认通路”。鸟类的性别也是由遗传基因决定的,EFT1(雌性)和DMRT1(雄性)可能是性别决定候选基因。爬行类为温度性别决定的典型,温度可能通过调节雌激素水平和控制性别特异遗传基因表达决定性别。大部分两栖类性别受环境因素影响,但发现DMRT1和DAX1可能与其精巢发育有关。鱼类性别决定和分化方式差异很大,多种因素(遗传基因、环境因素、类固醇激素等)参与了这一过程。从青Q鳉Y染色体定位克隆的DMY,被认为是第一个非哺乳类脊椎动物雄性性别决定基因。所有这些表明脊椎动物性别决定和分化机制是多样化的。     

B染色体起源的研究进展

B染色体(简写为Bs)起源的传统观点是认为它起源于携带者所在物种的基因组.目前又发现了许多新的证据来推测Bs的起源.它可能具有两种起源:种内起源和种间起源(起源于另一物种的基因组),且有证据表明同一物种的Bs可能是多次起源,同时对Bs的起源机制也作了总结.认为B8起源的研究已取得了一定的进展,但要给Bs起源下一个确切的结论仍需要大量的实验证据.     

Cytological changes and DNA and protein synthesis in parthenogenetically activated sea urchin eggs

Summary The present study deals with cytological observations, DNA and protein synthesis in artificially activated sea urchin eggs. The eggs were activated by means of Loeb's double treatment with butyric acid and hypertonic sea water. Most of the eggs ofHemicentrotus pulcherrimus divided when the chromosomes duplicated after formation of the first monaster and other eggs divided at a later cell cycle. In the eggs ofTemnopleurus toreumaticus, however, haploid division at the first cell cycle was observed predominantly.Activated eggs that were treated for 25 min with hypertonic sea water showed a marked uptake of³H-thymidine during the two periods of 30–40 min and 90–100 min after the double treatment. These periodic changes in the³H-thymidine uptake paralleled morphological changes within the nucleus. However, these periods of increased uptake were not observed in the eggs treated with hypertonic sea water for 60 min. During exposure to hypertonic sea water, the³H-thymidine-uptake by eggs activated with butyric acid decreased gradually. When the uptake of¹⁴C-valine by eggs was measured, a very low level was seen in unfertilized eggs. The level of uptake increased strikingly when the eggs were activated with butyric acid but was suppressed by the hypertonic treatment. However, removal of the eggs to sea water allowed the uptake to return to the former high level. This pattern suggests that the hypertonic treatment has an inhibitory effect on the synthesis of protein (or enzymes) which obstruct cleavage induction.     

Genetic similarity and diversity of parthenogenetic and bisexual populations of the freshwater snail Melanoides tuberculata (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia)

Genetic variability and similarity were analysed in four parthenogenetic and five bisexual populations of the snail Melanoides tuberculata found in Israel. Electrophoretic studies of six enzymatic systems revealed 28 zones of activity. The average genetic identity between populations was low—0.725. A particularly low similarity (0.628) was obtained between parthenogenetic populations, compared to the average of 0.822 observed among the bisexual ones. The percentage of fixed electrophoretic bands in parthenogens was 53.9% compared to 12.5% observed in bisexual populations. The diversity of parthenogenetic populations was found to be lower than those of bisexual. The amount of electrophoretic diversity between populations of the parthenogenetic group was found to be 80%, whereas within the bisexual group the diversity between populations was only 42%.     

哺乳动物同性生殖研究历程及应用前景

繁殖是所有生命形式的基础,同性生殖作为一种特殊的繁殖方式存在于自然界中。同性生殖包含孤雌生殖和孤雄生殖,在哺乳动物中尚未被发现。印记基因等表观遗传机制的存在阻碍了同性生殖胚胎发育。目前利用基因编辑已成功培育出双母系小鼠（Mus musculus domesticus）、单母小鼠和双父系小鼠,双母系小鼠和单母小鼠可正常发育并繁殖后代,双父系小鼠可存活48h。本文综述了哺乳动物同性生殖相关技术以及探究历程,总结了同性生殖技术的应用前景与发展方向。     

Wnt 6 regulates the epithelialisation process of the segmental plate mesoderm leading to somite formation

In higher vertebrates, the paraxial mesoderm undergoes a mesenchymal to epithelial transformation to form segmentally organised structures called somites. Experiments have shown that signals originating from the ectoderm overlying the somites or from midline structures are required for the formation of the somites, but their identity has yet to be determined. Wnt6 is a good candidate as a somite epithelialisation factor from the ectoderm since it is expressed in this tissue. In this study, we show that injection of Wnt6-producing cells beneath the ectoderm at the level of the segmental plate or lateral to the segmental plate leads to the formation of numerous small epithelial somites. Ectopic expression of Wnt6 leads to sustained expression of markers associated with the epithelial somites and reduced or delayed expression of markers associated with mesenchymally organised somitic tissue. More importantly, we show that Wnt6-producing cells are able to rescue somite formation after ectoderm ablation. Furthermore, injection of Wnt6-producing cells following the isolation of the neural tube/notochord from the segmental plate was able to rescue somite formation at both the structural (epithelialisation) and molecular level, as determined by the expression of marker genes like Paraxis or Pax-3. We show that Wnts are indeed responsible for the epithelialisation of somites by applying Wnt antagonists, which result in the segmental plate being unable to form somites. These results show that Wnt6, the only known member of this family to be localised to the chick paraxial ectoderm, is able to regulate the development of epithelial somites and that cellular organisation is pivotal in the execution of the differentiation programmes. We propose a model in which the localisation of Wnt6 and its antagonists regulates the process of epithelialisation in the paraxial mesoderm.     

Why three Rho proteins? RhoA, RhoB, RhoC, and cell motility

Higher vertebrates have 3 Rho GTPases, RhoA, RhoB, and RhoC, which share 85% amino acid sequence identity. Here, we compare and contrast the roles of RhoA, B, and C in the regulation of the cytoskeleton and cell motility. Despite their similarity, some regulators and effectors show preferential interaction with RhoA, B, or C, and the three proteins show differences in function in cells. RhoA plays a key role in the regulation of actomyosin contractility. RhoB, which is localized primarily on endosomes, has been shown to regulate cytokine trafficking and cell survival, while RhoC may be more important in cell locomotion. In cancer cells, the expression and activity of RhoA, B, and C is altered in different ways. Together, this evidence suggests that although the 3 isoforms of Rho are structurally highly homologous, they have different cellular functions.     

Parthenogenesis of rabbit oocytes activated by different stimuli

Oocyte activation is one of the essential elements determining the success of nuclear transfer and the subsequent development of cloned embryos both in vitro and in vivo. Experiments were conducted to optimize the protocol for oocyte activation in a regular nuclear transfer study. In vivo derived oocytes were collected at 14–15 h from New Zealand white rabbits after ovulation treatment and were activated +18 h post-ovulation treatment. Single activation agents including calcium ionophore (A23187, 5 μM, 5 min), ethanol (Eth, 7%, 7 min), and thimerosal (200 μM, 10 min) were tested. Cleavage rates were highest in the ethanol-treated group (37%) compared to other treatments (19–25%). Very low blastocyst rates (2–3%) resulted which were not significantly different among treatments (P>0.05). Combined single agent treatment (calcium stimulators) with protein kinase inhibitor, 6-DMAP were used to achieve a full oocyte activation. Both pronuclear and blastocyst formation rates were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the Eth+6-DMAP treatment group (38 and 27%) than in the other groups (16–21 and 7–9%, respectively, P<0.05). Low (0.2 mM) and high (2.5 mM) concentrations of 6-DMAP treatments with different treatment lengths (1.5 and 3.5 h) in the combined groups were also compared. Blastocyst formation and cleavage rates were greater in the high concentration with less treatment time groups (36% versus 4–20%, P<0.05). In conclusion, single activation agents, either Ca²⁺ stimulators or protein kinase inhibitors, could not fully activate mature rabbit oocytes. The best activation procedure obtained in this study was the Eth+6-DMAP combined treatment, which may be incorporated into regular nuclear transfer or cloning protocols.     

Molecular evidence from Ciona intestinalis for the evolutionary origin of vertebrate sensory placodes

Cranial sensory placodes are focused areas of the head ectoderm of vertebrates that contribute to the development of the cranial sense organs and their associated ganglia. Placodes have long been considered a key character of vertebrates, and their evolution is proposed to have been essential for the evolution of an active predatory lifestyle by early vertebrates. Despite their importance for understanding vertebrate origins, the evolutionary origin of placodes has remained obscure. Here, we use a panel of molecular markers from the Six, Eya, Pax, Dach, FoxI, COE and POUIV gene families to examine the tunicate Ciona intestinalis for evidence of structures homologous to vertebrate placodes. Our results identify two domains of Ciona ectoderm that are marked by the genetic cascade that regulates vertebrate placode formation. The first is just anterior to the brain, and we suggest this territory is equivalent to the olfactory/adenohypophyseal placodes of vertebrates. The second is a bilateral domain adjacent to the posterior brain and includes cells fated to form the atrium and atrial siphon of adult Ciona. We show this bares most similarity to placodes fated to form the vertebrate acoustico-lateralis system. We interpret these data as support for the hypothesis that sensory placodes did not arise de novo in vertebrates, but evolved from pre-existing specialised areas of ectoderm that contributed to sensory organs in the common ancestor of vertebrates and tunicates.