复合益生菌制剂缓解cuprizone诱导的小鼠神经脱髓鞘

[目的]探索复合益生菌制剂对双环己酮草酰二腙(cuprizone,CPZ)诱导的小鼠脑内神经脱髓鞘的作用.[方法]将27只小鼠随机分为正常组(NC)、模型组(CPZ)和益生菌处理组(probiotics).NC组小鼠正常饲喂,CPZ组和probiotics组小鼠饲喂含0.2％CPZ的饲料且每天分别灌饲0.2 mL生理盐...     

新生大鼠慢性脑缺血损伤中氯离子通道ClC2的表达及其与白质发育影响作用的研究

目的探讨新生大鼠缺血缺氧损伤后氯离子(Cl-)通道ClC2表达及其阻断剂DIDS对脑白质发育的影响作用。方法采用新生3-5dSD大鼠,以改良Levine法建立慢性脑缺血缺氧模型。运用RT-PCR、活性氧检测和Western Blot检测结合髓鞘卢卡斯快蓝与免疫组织化学染色等技术,对比观察新生缺血缺氧脑损伤前后白质中ClC2的表达变化;分析其与氧化应激、炎症反应的相关性;对比观察损伤前后及损伤后应用DIDS阻断ClC2表达对脑白质髓鞘发育和细胞凋亡的影响。结果1新生缺血缺氧脑损伤后白质中ClC2mRNA和蛋白表达均显著增高(P0.01);伴白质组织活性氧浓度显著升高(P0.01);和iNOS、TNF-αmRNA的表达增加(P0.01)。在胼胝体等白质区髓鞘染色较正常明显浅淡,促凋亡蛋白caspase-3与ClC2阳性双标细胞数目则明显增多(P0.01)。2损伤早期应用DIDS后,ClC2mRNA和蛋白、活性氧浓度、iNOS、TNF-αmRNA的表达以及caspase-3表达等均较损伤组明显降低(P0.05);白质区髓鞘特异染色逐渐加深。结论新生缺血缺氧脑损伤后白质区Cl-通道表达升高与氧化应激、炎症反应呈正相关;可导致由脑白质中caspase-3介导的细胞凋亡增多和髓鞘发育受阻。伤后早期应用DIDS阻断Cl-通道可降低caspase-3介导的凋亡发生,提示早期使用DIDS可部分保护缺血缺氧损伤后的OLs细胞。     

克罗米芬促进髓鞘发育并改善缺氧性运动功能障碍

目的 研究选择性雌激素受体调节剂克罗米芬在促进白质损伤模型动物大脑少突胶质前体细胞分化和髓鞘形成中的作用和对运动功能障碍的影响。方法 离体少突胶质前体细胞纯化培养;新生3 d小鼠连续缺氧(10%O₂)7 d,模拟新生儿脑白质损伤;采用免疫荧光染色、运动协调功能检测等方法,观察克罗米芬对大脑皮质和胼胝体区域少突胶质细胞和髓鞘发育与运动功能的影响。结果 克罗米芬可促进纯化培养的少突胶质前体细胞分化为成熟少突胶质细胞,显著增加脑白质损伤模型小鼠脑组织2种髓鞘标志物——髓鞘碱性蛋白和髓鞘蛋白脂蛋白的表达,也显著增加成熟少突胶质细胞标志物腺瘤性结肠息肉病蛋白的表达;平衡杆实验证明克罗米芬治疗能够改善低氧导致的小鼠远期运动协调功能障碍。结论 克罗米芬能有效促进慢性缺氧诱导的白质损伤模型小鼠髓鞘形成和改善神经功能异常,为治疗脑白质损伤提供可能的临床药物。     

Olig2在cuprizone介导的脱髓鞘动物模型中的表达变化

目的探讨Olig2在cuprizone诱导的急性脱髓鞘动物模型中的表达变化规律。方法应用含0.2%cuprizone饲料饲育小鼠,通过调控饲育时间,造成神经脱髓鞘及髓鞘再生,使用免疫荧光染色和实时定量PCR(qRT-PCR)的方法,观察模型髓鞘脱失后及髓鞘再生2周后Olig2、少突胶质细胞碱性髓鞘蛋白(MBP)及星形胶质细胞神经胶质酸性蛋白(GFAP)的表达变化。结果 Cuprizone饲育6周后,动物胼胝体白质内髓鞘脱失严重,在恢复正常饲料后,髓鞘逐渐恢复正常结构。正常小鼠大脑Olig2低水平表达。髓鞘脱失后Olig2、GFAP表达增高,并可见Olig2+/GFAP+细胞,MBP表达明显降低。髓鞘再生2周后Olig2表达降低,MBP、GFAP表达增高。结论 Olig2基因在cuprizone诱导的脱髓鞘模型中的表达变化,提示Olig2可能参与祖细胞向有活性的星形胶质细胞的分化过程,并与胶质瘢痕的形成有关。     

骨髓间充质干细胞移植对急性脊髓损伤脱髓鞘病变的保护作用

骨髓间充质干细胞(Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells,BMSCs)已被广泛应用于治疗脊髓损伤,但目前对其治疗机制了解甚少。BMSCs被移植至脊髓钳夹损伤模型大鼠,以研究其保护作用。通过LFB(Luxol fast blue)染色、锇酸染色、TUNEL(Td T-mediated d UTP nick-end labeling)染色和透射电镜对白质有髓神经纤维进行观察。免疫印迹检测BMSCs移植对脑源性神经营养因子(Brain derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)和caspase 3蛋白表达的影响。通过脊髓损伤后1、7、14 d三个时间点移植BMSCs并进行后肢运动评分(Basso,beattie and bresnahan;BBB评分)和CNPase(2′,3′-cyclic-nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase)、髓鞘碱性蛋白(Myelin basic protein,MBP)、caspase 3蛋白水平的检测。免疫荧光观察BMSCs移植到受损脊髓后分化情况及CNPase-caspase 3~+共表达情况。骨髓间充质干细胞移植7 d后,部分移植的BMSCs可表达神经元和少突胶质细胞标记物,大鼠后肢运动能力和髓鞘超微结构特征均明显改善。骨髓间充质干细胞移植后BDNF蛋白表达水平增加,caspase 3蛋白表达水平则降低。相对于脊髓损伤后1 d和14 d,7 d移植BMSCs后MBP和CNPase蛋白表达水平最高;caspase 3蛋白表达水平则最低。骨髓间充质干细胞移植后CNPase-caspase 3~+细胞散在分布于脊髓白质。结果表明,急性脊髓损伤后,BMSCs移植到受损脊髓有分化为神经元和少突胶质细胞的倾向,并促进BDNF的分泌介导抗少突胶质细胞凋亡而对神经脱髓鞘病变有保护作用,且最佳移植时间为脊髓损伤后7 d。     

SD大鼠缓解-复发型实验性变态反应性脑脊髓炎模型的建立

目的:建立大鼠缓解-复发型实验性变态反应性脑脊髓炎(EAE)模型,进行病理学研究,为多发性硬化(MS)的研究提供据.方法:采用大鼠脊髓和弗氏完全佐剂混合乳剂一次性注入 SD 大鼠双足垫和尾部,1周后半剂量注射进行一次加强,诱导大鼠发生 EAE;观察发病情况,HE 染色观察病理变化,监牢兰染色观察脱髓鞘情况.结果:空白对照组大鼠均未出现症状,HE 染色小脑及脊髓无炎性细胞浸润,监牢兰染色未见髓鞘脱失;模型组临床症状发生率为90%以上,HE 染色可见小脑白质及脊髓血管周围有大量炎性细胞浸润,监牢兰染色发现有大片髓鞘脱落.结论:用 SD 大鼠脊髓髓鞘蛋白和弗氏完全佐剂混合乳剂可诱导同种 SD 大鼠发生缓解-复发型 EAE.     

短期雌激素替代治疗对中老年卵巢切除大鼠大脑白质及白质内有髓神经纤维影响的体视学研究

目的运用体视学方法定量研究短期雌激素替代治疗(Estrogen replacement therapy,ERT)对中老年卵巢切除大鼠的大脑白质及白质内有髓神经纤维的作用。方法 19只中老年(10-12月龄)雌性SD大鼠行双侧卵巢切除术(ovariectomised,OVX),恢复1m后,随机分为雌激素替代治疗组(OVX+E组)(n=10)和安慰剂治疗组(OVX+Veh组)(n=9)。雌激素替代治疗1m后,运用Morris水迷宫方法检测大鼠的空间记忆能力。随后每组大鼠随机选取5只,运用透射电子显微镜和体视学方法比较两组大鼠大脑白质及白质内有髓神经纤维的改变。结果 OVX+E组大鼠的空间记忆能力显著强于OVX+Veh组(P0.05),但是两组大鼠的大脑白质总体积、白质内有髓神经纤维总长度、总体积、平均直径及髓鞘总体积均没有显著性差异(P0.05)。结论为期1m的雌激素替代治疗可显著提高中老年卵巢切除大鼠的空间记忆能力,但是对中老年卵巢切除大鼠的大脑白质及白质内有髓神经纤维均没有显著影响。     

Wistar大鼠实验性变态反应性脑脊髓炎病理探讨

目的研究缓解-复发型EAE大鼠的基本病理改变。方法对缓解-复发型EAE大鼠进行HE染色、Weil髓鞘染色和改良的Bielschowsky染色,以免疫组化方法标记GFAP和MMP-2、MMP-9。结果组织内可见多个血管周围淋巴细胞浸润呈袖套样分布,伴有大片状脱髓鞘,部分脱失的髓鞘内有炎细胞浸润,轴索呈空泡样缺失,GFAP染色证明在旧病灶的周围部分可见星形胶质细胞增生,MMP-2、MMP-9在血管内皮细胞、细胞外基质、炎细胞及脑(脊)膜内呈阳性表达。结论①缓解-复发型EAE大鼠的组织病理学改变与临床表现一致,有活动性和非活动性病灶并存的现象。②MMP-2、MMP-9在活动性病灶内表达,参与疾病的发生。③缓解-复发型EAE病理改变与MS相似,是理想的动物模型。     

RNSP抑制APP/PS1小鼠海马白质降解改善学习记忆能力

本研究前期证实,七十味珍珠丸(ratanasampil, RNSP)对淀粉样前体蛋白/早老素1(Amyloid precursor protein/Presenilin1, APP/PS1)双转基因小鼠学习记忆能力有积极的改善效果。脑白质损伤是阿尔茨海默症(Alzheimer's disease, AD)的一个重要病理特征,七十味珍珠丸(ratanasampil, RNSP)对APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆的改善作用是否与其对海马白质的改善有关,目前尚不清楚。为探讨RNSP对APP/PS1小鼠海马白质结构的影响,本研究采用3月龄C57BL/6品系的APP/PS1小鼠24只和同窝野生小鼠12只为实验对象,将小鼠分为野生对照组(WTC组)、APP/PS1对照组(ADC组)和APP/PS1 RNSP干预组(ADR组),各组12只。3个月灌胃干预后,采用Morris水迷宫、弥散张量成像(Magnetic Resonance Imaging-diffusion tensor imaging,MRI-DTI)、透射电镜、免疫组织荧光、Western印迹等方法对小鼠学习记忆及脑白质相关指标进行检测。结果显示,6月龄APP/PS1小鼠潜伏期显著延长(P0.05),穿越平台次数明显减少(P0.05),海马白质各向异性分数(fractional anisotropy, FA)值降低(P0.05),髓鞘完整性破坏,MBP蛋白表达下调(P0.05),脑白质降解相关基因胞浆磷脂酶A2(cytosolic phospholipases A2, c-PLA2)、琥珀酰辅酶A:3-酮酸辅酶A转移酶(succinyl CoA:3-oxoacid CoA-transferase, SCOT)、单羧酸转运载体(monocarboxylate transporters, MCTs即MCT1、MCT2、MCT4)蛋白质表达上调(P0.05);3个月的RNSP干预可逆转上述指标变化,改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力,抑制脑白质降解。结果提示,RNSP改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力的机制可能与其对小鼠海马白质的改善有关。     

弥散张量成像对脑室周围白质软化患儿术后脑白质恢复的评估作用

目的:研究弥散张量成像(DTI)对脑室周围白质软化(PVL)患儿选择性脊神经后根切除术(SPR)后脑白质恢复的评估价值。方法:选取从2014年1月至2015年8月在新疆医科大学二附院脑瘫中心择期行SPR手术治疗的PVL患儿40例作为观察组,另选同期磁共振成像(MRI)检查正常儿童40例作为对照组,两组分别在手术前后进行DTI检查,比较两组不同部位的部分各向异性值(FA)及表观弥散系数(ADC)。结果:术前观察组不同部位的FA值均显著低于对照组,胼胝体压部的ADC值显著高于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。与术前比较,术后观察组不同部位的FA值均上升,胼胝体压部的ADC值下降,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05),且与对照组之间的差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:SPR术能够明显控制PVL患儿的病情,且采用DTI成像技术能够客观地反应PVL患儿SPR术后脑白质恢复情况,对辅助临床治疗和预后评估具有重要作用。     

Deep Gray Matter Demyelination Detected by Magnetization Transfer Ratio in the Cuprizone Model

In multiple sclerosis (MS), the correlation between lesion load on conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and clinical disability is weak. This clinico-radiological paradox might partly be due to the low sensitivity of conventional MRI to detect gray matter demyelination. Magnetization transfer ratio (MTR) has previously been shown to detect white matter demyelination in mice. In this study, we investigated whether MTR can detect gray matter demyelination in cuprizone exposed mice. A total of 54 female C57BL/6 mice were split into one control group () and eight cuprizone exposed groups (). The mice were exposed to (w/w) cuprizone for up to six weeks. MTR images were obtained at a 7 Tesla Bruker MR-scanner before cuprizone exposure, weekly for six weeks during cuprizone exposure, and once two weeks after termination of cuprizone exposure. Immunohistochemistry staining for myelin (anti-Proteolopid Protein) and oligodendrocytes (anti-Neurite Outgrowth Inhibitor Protein A) was obtained after each weekly scanning. Rates of MTR change and correlations between MTR values and histological findings were calculated in five brain regions. In the corpus callosum and the deep gray matter a significant rate of MTR value decrease was found, per week () and per week () respectively. The MTR values correlated to myelin loss as evaluated by immunohistochemistry (Corpus callosum: . Deep gray matter: ), but did not correlate to oligodendrocyte density. Significant results were not found in the cerebellum, the olfactory bulb or the cerebral cortex. This study shows that MTR can be used to detect demyelination in the deep gray matter, which is of particular interest for imaging of patients with MS, as deep gray matter demyelination is common in MS, and is not easily detected on conventional clinical MRI.     

Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Demyelination and Remyelination in the Cuprizone Mouse Model

Cuprizone administration in mice provides a reproducible model of demyelination and spontaneous remyelination, and has been useful in understanding important aspects of human disease, including multiple sclerosis. In this study, we apply high spatial resolution quantitative MRI techniques to establish the spatio-temporal patterns of acute demyelination in C57BL/6 mice after 6 weeks of cuprizone administration, and subsequent remyelination after 6 weeks of post-cuprizone recovery. MRI measurements were complemented with Black Gold II stain for myelin and immunohistochemical stains for associated tissue changes. Gene expression was evaluated using the Allen Gene Expression Atlas. Twenty-five C57BL/6 male mice were split into control and cuprizone groups; MRI data were obtained at baseline, after 6 weeks of cuprizone, and 6 weeks post-cuprizone. High-resolution (100μm isotropic) whole-brain coverage magnetization transfer ratio (MTR) parametric maps demonstrated concurrent caudal-to-rostral and medial-to-lateral gradients of MTR decrease within corpus callosum (CC) that correlated well with demyelination assessed histologically. Our results show that demyelination was not limited to the midsagittal line of the corpus callosum, and also that opposing gradients of demyelination occur in the lateral and medial CC. T₂-weighted MRI gray/white matter contrast was strong at baseline, weak after 6 weeks of cuprizone treatment, and returned to a limited extent after recovery. MTR decreases during demyelination were observed throughout the brain, most clearly in callosal white matter. Myelin damage and repair appear to be influenced by proximity to oligodendrocyte progenitor cell populations and exhibit an inverse correlation with myelin basic protein gene expression. These findings suggest that susceptibility to injury and ability to repair vary across the brain, and whole-brain analysis is necessary to accurately characterize this model. Whole-brain parametric mapping across time is essential for gaining a real understanding of disease processes in-vivo. MTR increases in healthy mice throughout adolescence and adulthood were observed, illustrating the need for appropriate age-matched controls. Elucidating the unique and site-specific demyelination in the cuprizone model may offer new insights into in mechanisms of both damage and repair in human demyelinating diseases.     

Beneficial Effects of Minocycline on Cuprizone Induced Cortical Demyelination

In this study, we investigated the potential of minocycline to influence cuprizone induced demyelination in the grey and white matter. To induce demyelination C57BL/6 mice were fed with cuprizone for up to 6 weeks and were analysed at different timepoints (week 0, 4, 5, 6). Mice treated with minocycline had less demyelination of the cortex and corpus callosum compared with sham treated animals. In the cortex decreased numbers of activated and proliferating microglia were found after 6 weeks of cuprizone feeding, while there were no significant effects for microglial infiltration of the corpus callosum. In addition to the beneficial effects on demyelination, minocycline prevented from motor coordination disturbance as shown in the beam walking test. For astrogliosis and the numbers of OPC and oligodendrocytes no treatment effects were found. In summary, minocycline treatment diminished the course of demyelination in the grey and white matter and prevented disturbances in motor coordination.     

De- and remyelination in the CNS white and grey matter induced by cuprizone: the old, the new, and the unexpected

The copper chelator cuprizone (bis-cyclohexanone oxaldihydrazone) was established as a neurotoxin in rodents in 1966 by Carlton. During the following years the usefulness of cuprizone feeding in mice to induce oligodendrocyte death with secondary demyelination of the superior cerebellar peduncles was described by Blakemore. In 1998 the cuprizone model experienced a renaissance as the group of Matsushima described the effects of cuprizone on the white matter of the cerebrum and focussed on demyelination in the corpus callosum, where the extent of demyelination could be scored more easily and consistently. Since then the toxic cuprizone model has been widely used to study experimental de- and remyelination in the corpus callosum. Recently, we and others have extended these studies and have shown several new aspects characteristic for this model. Many lessons can be learned from these recent findings that have implications for the basic understanding of remyelination and the design of remyelinating and neuroprotective strategies in demyelinating diseases of the CNS. Although the model is often mentioned in the context of multiple sclerosis, it must always be kept in mind that this model has a fundamentally different induction of demyelination. We highlight the important findings delineated from this model and critically discuss both the advantages and the shortcomings of cuprizone induced demyelination.     

Spatial and temporal profiles of growth factor expression during CNS demyelination reveal the dynamics of repair priming

Demyelination is the cause of disability in various neurological disorders. It is therefore crucial to understand the molecular regulation of oligodendrocytes, the myelin forming cells in the CNS. Growth factors are known to be essential for the development and maintenance of oligodendrocytes and are involved in the regulation of glial responses in various pathological conditions. We employed the well established murine cuprizone model of toxic demyelination to analyze the expression of 13 growth factors in the CNS during de- and remyelination. The temporal mRNA expression profile during demyelination and the subsequent remyelination were analyzed separately in the corpus callosum and cerebral cortex using laser microdissection and real-time PCR techniques. During demyelination a similar pattern of growth factor mRNA expression was observed in both areas with a strong up-regulation of NRG1 and GDNF and a slight increase of CNTF in the first week of cuprizone treatment. HGF, FGF-2, LIF, IGF-I, and TGF-ß1 were up-regulated mainly during peak demyelination. In contrast, during remyelination there were regional differences in growth factor mRNA expression levels. GDNF, CNTF, HGF, FGF-2, and BDNF were elevated in the corpus callosum but not in the cortex, suggesting tissue differences in the molecular regulation of remyelination in the white and grey matter. To clarify the cellular source we isolated microglia from the cuprizone lesions. GDNF, IGF-1, and FGF mRNA were detected in the microglial fraction with a temporal pattern corresponding to that from whole tissue PCR. In addition, immunohistochemical analysis revealed IGF-1 protein expression also in the reactive astrocytes. CNTF was located in astrocytes. This study identified seven different temporal expression patterns for growth factors in white and grey matter and demonstrated the importance of early tissue priming and exact orchestration of different steps during callosal and cortical de- and remyelination.     

Minocycline reduces remyelination by suppressing ciliary neurotrophic factor expression after cuprizone‐induced demyelination

Remyelination is disrupted in demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis, but the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we employed the murine cuprizone model of demyelination, in which remyelination occurs after removal of the toxin from the diet, to examine the cellular and molecular changes during demyelination and remyelination. Microglia accumulated in the corpus callosum during weeks 2–4 of the cuprizone diet, and these cells remained activated 2 weeks after the change to the normal diet. To examine the role of microglia in remyelination, mice were treated with minocycline to inactivate these cells after cuprizone‐induced demyelination. Minocycline treatment reduced the number of CC1‐positive oligodendrocytes, as well as levels of myelin basic protein (MBP) and CNPase in the remyelination phase. The expression of CNTF mRNA in the corpus callosum increased after 4 weeks on the cuprizone diet and remained high 2 weeks after the change to the normal diet. Minocycline suppressed CNTF expression during the remyelination phase on the normal diet. Primary culture experiments showed that CNTF was produced by microglia in addition to astrocytes. In vitro, CNTF directly affected the differentiation of oligodendrocytic cells. These findings suggest that minocycline reduces remyelination by suppressing CNTF expression by microglia after cuprizone‐induced demyelination.     

Toll-Like Receptor 2-Mediated Glial Cell Activation in a Mouse Model of Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic degenerative disease of the central nervous system that is characterized by myelin abnormalities, oligodendrocyte pathology, and concomitant glia activation. The factors triggering gliosis and demyelination are currently not well characterized. New findings suggest an important role of the innate immune response in the initiation and progression of active demyelinating lesions. Especially during progressive disease, aberrant glia activation rather than the invasion of peripheral immune cells is accountable for progressive neuronal injury. The innate immune response can be induced by pathogen-associated or danger-associated molecular patterns, which are identified by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including the Toll-like receptors (TLRs). In this study, we used the cuprizone model in mice to investigate the expression of TLR2 during the course of cuprizone-induced demyelination. In addition, we used TLR2-deficient mice to analyze the functional role of TLR2 activation during cuprizone-induced demyelination and reactive gliosis. We show a significantly increased expression of TLR2 in the corpus callosum and hippocampus of cuprizone-intoxicated mice. The absence of receptor signaling in TLR2-deficient mice resulted in less severe reactive astrogliosis in the corpus callosum and cortex. In addition, microglia activation was ameliorated in the corpus callosum of TLR2-deficient mice, but augmented in the cortex compared to wild-type littermates. Extent of demyelination and loss of mature oligodendrocytes was comparable in both genotypes. These results suggest that the TLR2 orchestrates glia activation during gray and white matter demyelination in the presence of an intact blood-brain barrier. Future studies now have to address the underlying mechanisms of the region-specific TLR2-mediated glia activation.     

Characterization of Glial Populations in the Aging and Remyelinating Mouse Corpus Callosum

Cells in the white matter of the adult brain have a characteristic distribution pattern in which several cells are contiguously connected to each other, making a linear array (LA) resembling pearls-on-a-string parallel to the axon axis. We have been interested in how this pattern of cell distribution changes during aging and remyelination after demyelination. In the present study, with a multiplex staining method, semi-quantitative analysis of the localization of oligodendrocyte lineage cells (oligodendrocyte progenitors, premyelinating oligodendrocytes, and mature oligodendrocytes), astrocytes, and microglia in 8-week-old (young adult) and 32-week-old (aged) corpus callosum showed that young adult cells still include immature oligodendrocytes and that LAs contain a higher proportion of microglia than isolated cells. In aged mice, premyelinating oligodendrocytes were decreased, but microglia continued to be present in the LAs. These results suggest that the presence of microglia is important for the characteristic cell localization pattern of LAs. In a cuprizone-induced demyelination model, we observed re-formation of LAs after completion of cuprizone treatment, concurrent with remyelination. These re-formed LAs again contained more microglia than the isolated cells. This finding supports the hypothesis that microglia contribute to the formation and maintenance of LAs. In addition, regardless of the distribution of cells (LAs or isolated cells), astrocytes were found to be more abundant than in the normal corpus callosum at 24 weeks after cuprizone treatment when remyelination is completed. This suggests that astrocytes are involved in maintaining the functions of remyelinated white matter.

     

Alterations in metabolism and gene expression in brain regions during cuprizone-induced demyelination and remyelination

Exposure of mice to the copper chelator, cuprizone, results in CNS demyelination. There is remyelination after removal of the metabolic insult. We present brain regional studies identifying corpus callosum as particularly severely affected; 65% of cerebroside is lost after 6 weeks of exposure. We examined recovery of cerebroside and ability to synthesize cerebroside and cholesterol following removal of the toxicant. The temporal pattern for concentration of myelin basic protein resembled that of cerebroside. We applied Affymetrix GeneChip technology to corpus callosum to identify temporal changes in levels of mRNAs during demyelination and remyelination. Genes coding for myelin structural components were greatly down-regulated during demyelination and up-regulated during remyelination. Genes related to microglia/macrophages appeared in a time-course (peaking at 6 weeks) correlating with phagocytosis of myelin and repair of lesions. mRNAs coding for many cytokines had peak expression at 4 weeks, compatible with intercellular signaling roles. Of interest were other genes with temporal patterns correlating with one of the three above patterns, but of function not obviously related to demyelination/remyelination. The ability to correlate gene expression with known pathophysiological events should help in elucidating further function of such genes as related to demyelination/remyelination.