癌症新型的诊疗靶点－APOBEC

APOBEC（“载脂蛋白质B mRNA编辑催化多肽”）是一类进化保守的胞苷脱氨酶家族。在人体内,已知含有保守的DNA胞嘧啶脱氨酶结构域的基因共有11种,包括AID、APOBEC1、APOBEC2、APOBEC3基因家族APOBEC3A、APOBEC3B、APOBEC3C、APOBEC3DE、APOBEC3F、APOBEC3G、APOBEC3H（分别称为A3A、A3B、A3C、A3D、A3F、A3G和A3H）和APOBEC4。APOBEC利用其脱氨酶活性通过与RNA和/或DNA结合,催化mRNA或使DNA中的胞嘧啶核苷酸转变为尿嘧啶,或者胞嘧啶核苷酸转变为胸腺嘧啶核苷酸,进而完成各自不同的功能。目前研究发现,AID及APOBEC3（A3s）的7种脱氨酶在人类的天然免疫和适应性免疫防御过程中发挥重要的作用,且在口腔癌,肺癌（腺癌和鳞状细胞癌）,结直肠癌和乳腺癌等的诊疗过程中具有重要的潜在应用价值。AID可以通过将胞嘧啶脱氨基成尿嘧啶,来启动SHM (体细胞超突变)和CSR (类别转换重组),进而在抗体多样性方面发挥作用。它的异常表达能够使B细胞淋巴瘤等恶性肿瘤的发病频率显著增加。而A3A、A3B通过胞嘧啶到尿嘧啶转换,以及自身表达量上调而在乳腺癌和肺癌诊疗中起作用。A3G通过APOBEC3G/miR 29/MMP2为了解结直肠癌肝转移和开发治疗晚期结肠癌的有效疗法开辟了新的途径。综上所述,本文将以AID,A3A,A3B,A3G为例子,对APOBEC在癌症诊断和治疗方面的应用进行综述,以期为进一步药物研究和临床应用等提供参考。     

APOBEC3G与Vif在HIV-1感染中的作用

载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑催化多肽样（apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic polypeptide-like,APOBEC）蛋白是一组胞嘧啶脱氨基酶,具有天然的抗病毒活性,对多种病毒具有抑制作用,特别是逆转录病毒. APOBEC3蛋白能够抑制人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV-1)的感染,其中APOBEC3G和APOBEC3F的作用最强. APOBEC3G能够通过胞嘧啶脱氨基作用和非胞嘧啶脱氨基作用抑制病毒感染. HIV-1病毒感染因子(Vif) 蛋白主要经泛素-蛋白酶体途径介导APOBEC3G降解,从而拮抗其抗病毒作用. APOBEC3G和Vif之间相互作用的研究对于寻求新的抗HIV治疗靶点具有重要意义.     

APOBEC3F蛋白的结构与功能

载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3F(apolipoprotin B mRNA-editing catalytic polypeptide 3protein F,APOBEC3F,简称A3F)是一种天然抗病毒活性的胞嘧啶脱氨基酶。在HIV病毒复制过程中,A3F蛋白能被整合进入病毒颗粒内部,诱导病毒c DNA胞嘧啶脱氨基化变为尿嘧啶,阻断病毒复制。近几年,科研工作者开展了一系列A3F蛋白的结构生物学和脱氨基化反应的研究,以及与单链DNA(single-stranded DNA,ss-DNA)的结合位点、病毒感染因子(viral infectivity factor,Vif)作用界面的探索。本文通过对这些工作进行总结,以期为艾滋病、乙肝的防治提供新的理论基础。     

《生物工程讲座》名词解释(Ⅰ-Ⅳ讲)

1.bp碱基对。DNA长度的单位。1000bp=1kb。 2.kp千碱基对。参见bp。 3.A,G,T,C DNA双链上四种脱氧核苷酸(或其碱基)的符号,A为脱氧腺嘌呤核苷酸,G为脱氧鸟便嘌呤核苷酸,T为脱氧胸腺嘧啶核苷酸,C为脱氧胞嘧啶核苷酸。在双链上。A恒与T配对,G恒与C配对。在RNA链上,四种核苷酸的符号为A,G,u,c,相应为腺嘌呤核苷酸,鸟便嘌呤核苷酸,尿嘧啶核苷酸和胞嘧啶核苷酸。     

DNA脱氨基:新发现的人类抗HIV机制

最近的研究进展表明,人体细抱内的载脂蛋白BmRNA编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3G (APOBEC3G,也称为CEM15),可以将人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)逆转录产生的负链CDNA中的胞嘧啶脱氨基,转变为尿嘧啶,进而被人体细胞内相关酶类降解,或在正链CDNA上产生乌嘌呤到腺嘌呤的超突变,使病毒丧失活性,具有抗病毒作用。而HIVVif蛋白可以与APOBEC3G结合,激活遍在蛋白一蛋白酶体途径,降解APOBEC3G,对抗人体这一抗病毒活性。Vif蛋白与APOBEC3G的相互作用,将为人们研究抗HIV的药物提供新的思路。     

艾滋病患者APOBEC3G 基因的克隆和真核表达

目的 建立艾滋病( AIDS) 患者载脂蛋白B mRNA 编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3G( APOBEC3G) 的真核表达体系。方法 采用反转录-聚合酶链反应( RT-PCR) 技术从AIDS 患者外周血单个核细胞( PBMC) 中获取APOBEC3G 基因编码区, 将其克隆到pMD18-T载体上, 测序验证正确后再将其转接入真核表达载体pEGFP-N1 中, 然后将重组质粒pEGFP-N1-A3G 转染HEK293T细胞, 分别用RT-PCR 法和蛋白印迹法( Western 印迹法) 验证APOBEC3G 在mRNA 和蛋白水平的表达。结果 从AIDS 患者体内克隆的APOBEC3G 基因编码区长度为1 154 bp, 测序结果与GenBank 中APOBEC3G 参考序列( NM021822) 比对发现存在2 处差异, 分别位于mRNA 第588 位和746 位碱基处。重组质粒pEGFP-N1-A3G转染HEK293T 细胞, 在荧光显微镜下观察到融合蛋白A3G-EGFP的表达, RT-PCR 法和Western blot 法分别验证了蛋白在mRNA 和蛋白水平的表达。结论 成功构建了AIDS 患者APOBEC3G 蛋白的真核表达体系, 为进一步研究APOBEC3G 在HIV-1 感染中的作用奠定了基础。     

激光扫描共聚焦显微镜研究APOBEC3G蛋白的亚细胞定位

采用RT-PCR技术,从HIV的非允许性H9细胞中获得载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3G(APOBEC3G)的全长cDNA。APOBEC3G cDNA全长1 155nt,编码384个氨基酸。将APOBEC3G克隆到真核表达载体pEGFP-C3上,转染CD4 HeLa细胞,激光扫描共聚焦显微镜下可观察到表达的GFP-APOBEC3G融合蛋白定位于细胞质。     

Toll样受体3抑制人类巨噬细胞感染HIV的机制研究

Toll样受体（Toll like receptor,TLR）是固有免疫系统中的病原模式识别受体,在巨噬细胞抗感染免疫中发挥重要作用。TLR3特异性识别双链RNA,诱导细胞内多重信号传导,引发巨噬细胞产生抗病毒活性。本研究以TLR3激活剂多聚次黄苷酸-胞苷酸（polyinosinie：polycytidylic acid,Polyl：C）刺激人类巨噬细胞,发现能显著抑制胞内HIV病毒感染和复制。Poly I：C刺激后,巨噬细胞I型干扰素（interferon,IFN）和抗HIV胞嘧啶脱氨酶（APOBEC3G,A3G）表达水平显著上调;且具有抗HIV作用的MicroRNA（miRNA-28,125b,150,223,and382）的表达也显著上调。本研究初步揭示了TLR3激活后抗HIV感染的机制。     

病毒感染因子在APOBEC3G抗病毒中的拮抗作用

病毒感染因子(virion infectivity factor, Vif)是人免疫缺陷病毒(human im_mu_n_o_de_fi_cien_cy virus, HIV)的6个辅助蛋白之一, 是病毒进行有效复制所必需的.由于Vif功能的复杂性以及对相应复合物体系的不了解, 一直以来, 对Vif的研究进展缓慢.直到2002年发现载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑酶催化多肽样蛋白3G (apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic polypeptide-like 3G, APOBEC3G)是存在于细胞内的一种天然抗病毒因子后, Vif的功能才被逐步阐明.APOBEC3G主要通过嘧啶脱氨基活性使HIV-1的负链DNA在逆转录过程中发生致死性超突变, 从而起到抗病毒作用.HIV-1基因编码Vif来拮抗APOBEC3G, 二者在宿主细胞内达到动态平衡.Vif通过介导APOBEC3G降解、减少在胞内的表达、阻碍其向病毒粒子的包装以及促使其装配成无活性的高分子质量复合体等多种途径起到中和作用.对Vif/APOBEC3G相互作用及其调节机制的进一步研究, 将为新型抗HIV-1病毒药物的研制与开发提供理论依据.     

人APOBEC-3F和-3G的克隆表达、亚细胞定位及其抑制HBV的研究

载脂蛋白B mRNA编辑酶催化多肽(apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic-polypeptide,APOBEC)家族成员,是近年来发现的具有抗病毒作用的天然免疫分子,对HIV和HBV等多种病毒具有抑制作用,为研究APOBEC的抗病毒作用,对APOBEC-3F和-3G进行克隆、表达及亚细胞定位分析．HBV主要的生物合成发生于细胞核中,利用核定位信号(NLS)及二联核定位信号(B-NLS)与APOBEC-3F和-3G融合表达,以进一步了解APOBEC-3F和-3G的亚细胞定位及功能．利用RT-PCR从植物凝集素(PHA)刺激的人外周血淋巴细胞RNA中,对APOBEC-3F和-3G进行克隆,利用HindⅢ和KpnⅠ双酶切插入到pcFlag载体中,脂质体转染MDCK细胞后利用免疫荧光检测APOBEC重组蛋白的亚细胞定位．电泳结果表明,RT-PCR扩增得到APOBEC-3F和-3G基因,双酶切鉴定结果表明,APOBEC真核表达载体构建成功,基因序列经DNA测序证实．免疫荧光结果表明,转染表达后的APOBEC-3F和-3G均定位于细胞胞浆中．APOBEC-3F和-3G可以在HepG2.2.15细胞中显著抑制HBV的复制．可以有效转运绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)入核的NLS及B-NLS,不能将APOBEC-3F和-3G有效地转运至核中．成功地对APOBEC家族中的两个重要成员APOBEC-3F和-3G进行了克隆、表达及亚细胞定位研究,为进一步利用APOBEC家族蛋白开发抗HIV及HBV药物提供基础．     

The retroviral hypermutation specificity of APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G is governed by the C-terminal DNA cytosine deaminase domain

The human proteins APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G restrict retroviral infection by deaminating cytosine residues in the first cDNA strand of a replicating virus. These proteins have two putative deaminase domains, and it is unclear whether one or both catalyze deamination, unlike their homologs, AID and APOBEC1, which are well characterized single domain deaminases. Here, we show that only the C-terminal cytosine deaminase domain of APOBEC3F and -3G governs retroviral hypermutation. A chimeric protein with the N-terminal cytosine deaminase domain from APOBEC3G and the C-terminal cytosine deaminase domain from APOBEC3F elicited a dinucleotide hypermutation preference nearly indistinguishable from that of APOBEC3F. This 5'-TC-->TT mutational specificity was confirmed in a heterologous Escherichia coli-based mutation assay, in which the 5'-CC-->CT dinucleotide hypermutation preference of APOBEC3G also mapped to the C-terminal deaminase domain. An N-terminal APOBEC3G deletion mutant displayed a preference indistinguishable from that of the full-length protein, and replacing the C-terminal deaminase domain of APOBEC3F with AID resulted in an AID-like mutational signature. Together, these data indicate that only the C-terminal domain of APOBEC3F and -3G dictates the retroviral minus strand 5'-TC and 5'-CC dinucleotide hypermutation preferences, respectively, leaving the N-terminal domain to perform other aspects of retroviral restriction.     

Subcellular localization of the APOBEC3 proteins during mitosis and implications for genomic DNA deamination

Humans have seven APOBEC3 DNA cytosine deaminases. The activity of these enzymes allows them to restrict a variety of retroviruses and retrotransposons, but may also cause pro-mutagenic genomic uracil lesions. During interphase the APOBEC3 proteins have different subcellular localizations: cell-wide, cytoplasmic or nuclear. This implies that only a subset of APOBEC3s have contact with nuclear DNA. However, during mitosis, the nuclear envelope breaks down and cytoplasmic proteins may enter what was formerly a privileged zone. To address the hypothesis that all APOBEC3 proteins have access to genomic DNA, we analyzed the localization of the APOBEC3 proteins during mitosis. We show that APOBEC3A, APOBEC3C and APOBEC3H are excluded from condensed chromosomes, but become cell-wide during telophase. However, APOBEC3B, APOBEC3D, APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G are excluded from chromatin throughout mitosis. After mitosis, APOBEC3B becomes nuclear, and APOBEC3D, APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G become cytoplasmic. Both structural motifs as well as size may be factors in regulating chromatin exclusion. Deaminase activity was not dependent on cell cycle phase. We also analyzed APOBEC3-induced cell cycle perturbations as a measure of each enzyme’s capacity to inflict genomic DNA damage. AID, APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B altered the cell cycle profile, and, unexpectedly, APOBEC3D also caused changes. We conclude that several APOBEC3 family members have access to the nuclear compartment and can impede the cell cycle, most likely through DNA deamination and the ensuing DNA damage response. Such genomic damage may contribute to carcinogenesis, as demonstrated by AID in B cell cancers and, recently, APOBEC3B in breast cancers.     

APOBEC3B and AID have similar nuclear import mechanisms

Members of the APOBEC (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like) protein family catalyze DNA cytosine deamination and underpin a variety of immune defenses. For instance, several family members, including APOBEC3B (A3B), elicit strong retrotransposon and retrovirus restriction activities. However, unlike the other proteins, A3B is the only family member with steady-state nuclear localization. Here, we show that A3B nuclear import is an active process requiring at least one amino acid (Val54) within an N-terminal motif analogous to the nuclear localization determinant of the antibody gene diversification enzyme AID (activation-induced cytosine deaminase). Mechanistic conservation with AID is further suggested by A3B's capacity to interact with the same subset of importin proteins. Despite these mechanistic similarities, enforced A3B expression cannot substitute for AID-dependent antibody gene diversification by class switch recombination. Regulatory differences between A3B and AID are also visible during cell cycle progression. Our studies suggest that the present-day A3B enzyme retained the nuclear import mechanism of an ancestral AID protein during the expansion of the APOBEC3 locus in primates. Our studies also highlight the likelihood that, after nuclear import, specialized mechanisms exist to guide these enzymes to their respective physiological substrates and prevent gratuitous chromosomal DNA damage.     

PrimPol prevents APOBEC/AID family mediated DNA mutagenesis

PrimPol is a DNA damage tolerant polymerase displaying both translesion synthesis (TLS) and (re)-priming properties. This led us to study the consequences of a PrimPol deficiency in tolerating mutagenic lesions induced by members of the APOBEC/AID family of cytosine deaminases. Interestingly, during somatic hypermutation, PrimPol counteracts the generation of C>G transversions on the leading strand. Independently, mutation analyses in human invasive breast cancer confirmed a pro-mutagenic activity of APOBEC3B and revealed a genome-wide anti-mutagenic activity of PRIMPOL as well as most Y-family TLS polymerases. PRIMPOL especially prevents APOBEC3B targeted cytosine mutations within TpC dinucleotides. As C transversions induced by APOBEC/AID family members depend on the formation of AP-sites, we propose that PrimPol reprimes preferentially downstream of AP-sites on the leading strand, to prohibit error-prone TLS and simultaneously stimulate error-free homology directed repair. These in vivo studies are the first demonstrating a critical anti-mutagenic activity of PrimPol in genome maintenance.     

Phosphorylation directly regulates the intrinsic DNA cytidine deaminase activity of activation-induced deaminase and APOBEC3G protein

The beneficial effects of DNA cytidine deamination by activation-induced deaminase (AID; antibody gene diversification) and APOBEC3G (retrovirus restriction) are tempered by probable contributions to carcinogenesis. Multiple regulatory mechanisms serve to minimize this detrimental outcome. Here, we show that phosphorylation of a conserved threonine attenuates the intrinsic activity of activation-induced deaminase (Thr-27) and APOBEC3G (Thr-218). Phospho-null alanine mutants maintain intrinsic DNA deaminase activity, whereas phospho-mimetic glutamate mutants are inactive. The phospho-mimetic variants fail to mediate isotype switching in activated mouse splenic B lymphocytes or suppress HIV-1 replication in human T cells. Our data combine to suggest a model in which this critical threonine acts as a phospho-switch that fine-tunes the adaptive and innate immune responses and helps protect mammalian genomic DNA from procarcinogenic lesions.     

Efficient deamination of 5-methylcytosines in DNA by human APOBEC3A, but not by AID or APOBEC3G

The AID/APOBEC family of enzymes in higher vertebrates converts cytosines in DNA or RNA to uracil. They play a role in antibody maturation and innate immunity against viruses, and have also been implicated in the demethylation of DNA during early embryogenesis. This is based in part on reported ability of activation-induced deaminase (AID) to deaminate 5-methylcytosines (5mC) to thymine. We have reexamined this possibility for AID and two members of human APOBEC3 family using a novel genetic system in Escherichia coli. Our results show that while all three genes show strong ability to convert C to U, only APOBEC3A is an efficient deaminator of 5mC. To confirm this, APOBEC3A was purified partially and used in an in vitro deamination assay. We found that APOBEC3A can deaminate 5mC efficiently and this activity is comparable to its C to U deamination activity. When the DNA-binding segment of AID was replaced with the corresponding segment from APOBEC3A, the resulting hybrid had much higher ability to convert 5mC to T in the genetic assay. These and other results suggest that the human AID deaminates 5mC’s only weakly because the 5-methyl group fits poorly in its DNA-binding pocket.     

Evolutionarily conserved and non-conserved retrovirus restriction activities of artiodactyl APOBEC3F proteins

The APOBEC3 proteins are unique to mammals. Many inhibit retrovirus infection through a cDNA cytosine deamination mechanism. HIV-1 neutralizes this host defense through Vif, which triggers APOBEC3 ubiquitination and degradation. Here, we report an APOBEC3F-like, double deaminase domain protein from three artiodactyls: cattle, pigs and sheep. Like their human counterparts, APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G, the artiodactyl APOBEC3F proteins are DNA cytosine deaminases that locate predominantly to the cytosol and can inhibit the replication of HIV-1 and MLV. Retrovirus restriction is attributable to deaminase-dependent and -independent mechanisms, as deaminase-defective mutants retain significant anti-retroviral activity. However, unlike human APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G, the artiodactyl APOBEC3F proteins have an active N-terminal DNA cytosine deaminase domain, which elicits a broader dinucleotide deamination preference, and they are resistant to HIV-1 Vif. These data indicate that DNA cytosine deamination; sub-cellular localization and retrovirus restriction activities are conserved in mammals, whereas active site location, local mutational preferences and Vif susceptibility are not. Together, these studies indicate that some properties of the mammal-specific, APOBEC3-dependent retroelement restriction system are necessary and conserved, but others are simultaneously modular and highly adaptable.     

The role of innate APOBEC3G and adaptive AID immune responses in HLA-HIV/SIV immunized SHIV infected macaques

The AID/APOBEC family (activation induced deaminase/apolipoprotein B mRNA editing cytokine deaminase) in B cells play important roles in adaptive and innate immunity. Whereas APOBEC3G has been studied in CD4+ T cells and myeloid cells its functional potential in B cells has received little attention. AID combines two critical functions of antibodies, class switching and affinity maturation and may serve as a functional surrogate of protection. These functions were studied following systemic immunization of rhesus macaques with recombinant HLA constructs, linked with HIV and SIV antigens and HSP70 to dextran. The results showed significant upregulation of AID in CD20+ B cells, APOBEC 3G in CD27+ memory B cells and CD4+ effector memory T cells. After immunization the upregulated APOBEC 3G and AID were directly correlated in B cells (p<0.0001). Following challenge with SHIV SF162.P4 the viral load was inversely correlated with AID in B cells and APOBEC 3G in B and T cells, suggesting that both deaminases may have protective functions. Investigation of major interactions between DC, T cells and B cells showed significant increase in membrane associated IL-15 in DC and CD40L in CD4+ T cells. IL-15 binds the IL-15 receptor complex in CD4+ T and B cells, which may reactivate the DC, T and B cell interactions. The overall results are consistent with AID inhibiting pre-entry SHIV by eliciting IgG and IgA antibodies, whereas APOBEC 3G may contribute to the post-entry control of SHIV replication and cellular spread.