Stage dependent influences of polydnaviruses and the parasitoid larva on host ecdysteroids

In the solitary egg-larval parasitoid Chelonus inanitus (Braconidae) both polydnavirus and the parasitoid larva manipulate host development. Parasitization leads to a premature drop in juvenile hormone titre and a precocious onset of metamorphosis in the 5th larval instar. The C. inanitus bracovirus (CiBV) alone causes a reduction in host ecdysteroid titres at the pupal cell formation stage and prevents pupation. Here we report three new findings. (1) We show that parasitization causes a reduction in haemolymph ecdysteroid titre immediately after the moult to the 5th instar; similarly low values were seen in nonparasitized larvae after the moult to the 6th instar. These data along with parasitoid removal experiments indicate that the low ecdysteroid titre after the moult is a very early sign of the upcoming metamorphosis. (2) In vitro experiments with prothoracic glands and brain extracts showed that CiBV affects both prothoracic glands and prothoracicotropic hormone after the stage of pupal cell formation. (3) In the haemolymph of parasitized larvae the ecdysteroid titre increased in the late cell formation stage, i.e. immediately before egression of the parasitoid. In vitro experiments showed that late 2nd instar parasitoids release ecdysteroids and are thus very likely responsible for the rise in host ecdysteroids.     

Release of planula larvae, settlement and development of Siderastrea stellata Verrill, 1868 (Anthozoa, Scleractinia)

We herein provide the first observations on planulation, larval development, and metamorphosis of Siderastrea stellata, an endemic reef-building species that occurs along the northeastern and southeastern coasts of Brazil. The release and settlement of larvae were observed in two distinct periods. The first started 3 days after collection on January 28 during the last quarter, whereas the second started 2 months later, on April 10 during the change from new moon to the first quarter. Planulation continued throughout approximately 48 h. Brooded larvae released from the mouth contained zooxanthellae, and underwent settlement after 48 h. Newly extruded larvae stayed in close contact with parental polyps. Fusion was observed among larvae from the same colony. The first septal cycle was formed by day 2–3, while the third cycle of exosepta became evident 15 days after protosepta development. The development of the corallite of primary polyp was slow, and after 9 months of analyses no evidence of budding was obtained, this indicating that colonial development is likely to be a late event in the S. stellata life history.     

Early larval ontogeny of the Permo-Carboniferous temnospondyl Sclerocephalus

The early larval development of the temnospondyl Sclerocephalus sp. is analyzed, based on 38 specimens from the Lower Rotliegend (Permo-Carboniferous boundary) of the Saar-Nahe Basin (south-west Germany). The study focuses on the smallest larval specimens, which exemplify changes in both proportions and ossification patterns. In comparison with dissorophoid larvae, the skull ossifies more fully and at a much faster rate; the smallest specimens already have completely formed circumorbital bones that are sutured throughout. Sculpturing undergoes two marked changes, first from uniformly pitted to pits of variable size and regional differentiation, and finally to the origin of ridges. The palate of small larvae differs from that of larger specimens in patterns of dentition, having more teeth including a denticle field on the cultriform process. The mandible of small larvae is described for the first time, being narrower than in adults and having three dentigerous coronoid elements. The smallest specimens have poorly ossified neural arches, lack vertebral centra, and have faintly ossified humeri, femora, and very poorly developed distal elements. The posterior ribs, metapodia, and phalanges appeared after the dermal elements of the pectoral girdle, whereas the scapulocoracoid and ischium are absent throughout the larval period. Early growth and differentiation of the limbs and the ilium illustrates the developmental patterning of the appendages, which proceeded from proximal to distal. Dermal squamation is uniform in small stages, consisting of round or oval osteoderms with pronounced growth rings; in large larvae, they start to differentiate in certain body regions.     

Fossil evidence for key innovations in the evolution of insect diversity

Explaining the taxonomic richness of the insects, comprising over half of all described species, is a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Previously, several evolutionary novelties (key innovations) have been posited to contribute to that richness, including the insect bauplan, wings, wing folding and complete metamorphosis, but evidence over their relative importance and modes of action is sparse and equivocal. Here, a new dataset on the first and last occurrences of fossil hexapod (insects and close relatives) families is used to show that basal families of winged insects (Palaeoptera, e.g. dragonflies) show higher origination and extinction rates in the fossil record than basal wingless groups (Apterygota, e.g. silverfish). Origination and extinction rates were maintained at levels similar to Palaeoptera in the more derived Polyneoptera (e.g. cockroaches) and Paraneoptera (e.g. true bugs), but extinction rates subsequently reduced in the very rich group of insects with complete metamorphosis (Holometabola, e.g. beetles). Holometabola show evidence of a recent slow-down in their high net diversification rate, whereas other winged taxa continue to diversify at constant but low rates. These data suggest that wings and complete metamorphosis have had the most effect on family-level insect macroevolution, and point to specific mechanisms by which they have influenced insect diversity through time.     

Expressions and localizations of Bax/Bcl-2 proteins during metamorphosis of Pelophylax ridibundus

Bcl-2 and Bax proteins are expressed in cells of the tails of Pelophylax ridibundus larvae. We investigated the levels of these proteins in tails undergoing apoptosis. Apoptotic cells were observed in the epidermis, muscle and notochord of tails of different lengths. The apoptotic cells in epidermis exhibited the typical features of apoptosis. Amorphous masses and irregularities in striated muscle tissue undergoing apoptosis and apoptotic remnants in the notochord also were observed. In general, Bax staining in the epidermis, subepidermal fibroblast layer, muscle and notochord cells increased, while Bcl-2 staining decreased as the tail regressed. Our results suggest that during tail regression due to metamorphosis, Bcl-2 and Bax proteins play key roles in the apoptosis of tail epidermis, subepidermal fibroblast layer, muscle and notochord cells.     

昆虫锌金属蛋白酶研究进展

锌金属蛋白酶是指含有锌离子的蛋白酶,在哺乳动物中参与多项生物学过程的调控.在昆虫中也发现了许多锌金属蛋白酶,能够参与昆虫体内多项生命活动进程如食物的消化与吸收、组织重塑、变态发育、神经系统的调控及免疫防御反应等.本文综述了目前在昆虫中发现的锌金属蛋白酶的结构和底物特异性,聚焦6种锌金属蛋白酶(羧肽酶、基质金属蛋白酶、脑啡肽酶、胰岛素降解酶、血管紧缩素转换酶及氨肽酶)在昆虫中的功能,旨在为昆虫锌金属蛋白酶的深入研究提供参考.     

Effects of head shape variation on growth, metamorphosis and survivorship in larval salamanders (Hynobius retardatus)

The effects of head shape variation on growth and metamorphosis in larval salamander (Hynobius retardatus) were examined by a laboratory experiment and a field experiment. In the laboratory experiment, each larva was fed equal amounts and was prevented from accessing others in both the solitary and group treatments, although chemical cues could be transmitted through water in the group treatment. The relative head width of larvae became larger in the group treatment during the early periods but having a large head width did not finally influence growth rate and days for metamorphosis. In the field experiment, larvae were allowed to contact each other directly in two density conditions. The enlarged relative head width was linked to high growth rate in the high-density treatment but not in the low-density treatment. The larval body size distribution in the high-density condition tended to be smaller, and there was a small proportion of large-sized individuals with a broad head width. Moreover, the small number of large larvae metamorphosed much earlier than the others. The mortality of larvae in high-density conditions was much higher than that in the low-density treatments. This would be a consequence of cannibalism in the high-density condition. From the experimental results obtained, it is argued that for the larvae of H. retardatus having a large head is an adaptive tactic that maximizes fitness, particularly in temporary ponds with an unpredictable environment and in crowded conditions.     

黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪断尾后的补偿生长和发育研究

动物在经历不利的生长条件或环境后往往出现补偿生长。研究了黑斑侧褶蛙(Pelophylax nigromaculatus)蝌蚪经历来自食蚊鱼(Gambusia affinis)捕食造成断尾损伤后的补偿生长模式、断尾损失对蝌蚪游泳能力以及变态时间与大小的影响。结果表明,经历捕食压力后,全尾组和1/3断尾组蝌蚪的体长显著大于1/2断尾组蝌蚪的体长,全尾组和1/3断尾组之间的蝌蚪体长差异不显著;第19天时,1/2断尾组蝌蚪经过补偿生长后体长显著大于全尾组蝌蚪,1/3断尾组与全尾组和1/2断尾组之间的蝌蚪体长差异均不显著;三个实验组之间蝌蚪尾长差异不显著;全尾组蝌蚪的疾游速显著大于1/2断尾组蝌蚪的疾游速,1/3断尾组蝌蚪的疾游速与全尾组和1/2断尾组之间差异不显著,表明严重断尾对蝌蚪疾游速产生了消极影响。三个实验组蝌蚪的变态时间和变态前后形态差异均不显著。黑斑侧褶蛙蝌蚪能够在变态前调整生长轨迹补偿早期捕食风险造成的生长损失,断尾损失并不影响变态时间与大小,断尾超过一半的蝌蚪经过补偿生长后仍要付出一定的运动代价。