药物滥用与神经元结构可塑性改变的关系

药物成瘾所导致的行为和生理方面的长时程改变可能与相关脑区突触连接的重构有关。安非他命、可卡因、吗啡和尼古丁滥用时,精神依赖和奖赏效应相关脑区神经元的树突和树突棘的结构发生改变,这反映药物滥用致相关神经回路突触连接方式的改变。这种改变足长时程的、脑区特异性的,是多种因素调节的结果。     

药物成瘾的神经生物学机制研究

药物滥用既是全球普遍存在的公共卫生问题,又是危害严重的社会问题。药物成瘾的本质是一种以药物引起的基因表达和神经突触可塑性改变为基础的病理性记忆。主要介绍国内外近年的重要研究成果。     

病理条件下的神经可塑性及在针灸研究中的可能应用

大脑是由可塑性极强的神经元组成。许多病理因素通过神经可塑性的分子细胞学机制诱导出特异性的神经活动模式,从而在细胞学水平引起脑的病理生理变化。这一逐步完善的理论不仅为理解诸多极为复杂的神经系统疾病提供了理论依据,亦为将来的临床治疗提供了可行的途径。针灸效用的生物学机制目前尚不十分清楚,有证据表明经络可能直接或间接地传入中枢神经系统,并通过重塑神经元活动模式（可塑性）达到某些治疗效果。由于这方面的研究尚处于起步阶段,这里以药物成瘾中神经可塑性作为范例,论述外周刺激如何利用神经可塑性改变脑的功能。药物成瘾是一种中枢神经系统性疾病,通常被定义为无法自拔的药物使用。充分证据表明,反复使用某种依赖性药物后,中脑边缘多巴胺（DA）系统的神经回路会发生一系列病理性的持久变化,从而导致动物情绪上的巨大改变。发现、鉴定和总结成瘾性药物在中脑边缘DA系统引发的长时程细胞学变化,是目前揭开成瘾的神经学机制的一条可行之路。突触可塑性变化是长时程神经变化中,进展最快、最深入的研究领域。因此,本综述试图以药物成瘾为例,阐明在特定病理条件下神经系统可塑性的普遍机制和在针灸研究中的可能应用。     

miRNAs与药物成瘾

药物成瘾是一种慢性复发性脑病,主要表现为不可控制的对药物持续渴求和戒断后的高复吸。目前观点认为,成瘾是中脑腹侧被盖（ventral tegmental area,VTA）到伏隔核（nucleus accumbens,NAc）脑区多巴胺能奖赏通路中神经可塑性发生改变而导致的一种神经精神疾病。基因表达变化在神经可塑性中发挥着重要作用,但成瘾药物导致相关脑区结构和功能改变的机制还不甚清楚。微小RNAs（microRNAs,miRNAs）是一类非编码RNA,主要通过结合靶基因mRNA 3′非翻译区（3′untranslated region,3′UTR）,在转录后水平阻断其翻译成蛋白质或触发其不稳定而降解。越来越多的研究证实,miRNAs参与调节成瘾相关神经可塑性的变化。本文较系统地阐述miRNAs在药物成瘾中的作用研究进展,将为深入阐明药物成瘾的机制以及药物成瘾临床有效干预和诊治提供新思路。     

前边缘皮质生长激素抑制素神经元在吗啡引起的行为学改变中的作用

药物成瘾是一种由药物滥用所引起的慢性、复发性的精神疾病,主要特征是不计后果的强迫性用药。药物成瘾涉及多个脑区的神经可塑性改变。前边缘皮质(prelimbic cortex, PrL)是背内侧前额叶皮质的主要区域,有大量的锥体神经元,其兴奋性神经投射可以促进可卡因觅药行为。PrL还存在少量GABA能中间神经元,对PrL的兴奋性神经元功能、信息整合和传递起到重要的调控作用,而这一部分神经元在药物成瘾过程中的作用并不清楚。小清蛋白(parvalbumin, PV)和生长激素抑制素(somatostatin, SST)神经元是前额叶皮质中分布广泛的两类主要的抑制性GABA能中间神经元。本研究利用PV-Cre和SSTCre的转基因小鼠,结合化学遗传学的方法探究PrL中间神经元在吗啡引起的行为学改变中的作用。结果显示,特异性抑制PrL脑区SST神经元可以显著增加小鼠的焦虑水平,但不影响小鼠的运动能力;抑制PrL脑区SST神经元降低小鼠吗啡诱导的活动性增强及条件位置偏爱;而抑制PrL脑区PV神经元则对小鼠的运动能力、焦虑水平及吗啡引起的行为学改变均没有显著影响。本研究通过对PrL脑区PV及SST中间神经元在吗啡诱导的行为学改变中作用的研究,为成瘾药物作用的细胞及神经基础提供了依据。     

“瘾”的基因

很多人都体验过成瘾药物产生的欣快感,但只有少数人发展成为持续性的药物滥用者。成瘾形成的这种个体差异性显示了成瘾具有遗传易感性。     

“瘾”的基因

很多人都体验过成瘾药物产生的欣快感,但只有少数人发展成为持续性的药物滥用者。成瘾形成的这种个体差异性显示了成瘾具有遗传易感性。     

肠道菌群功能与成瘾机制的研究进展

烟酒成瘾、药物滥用和停药反应的增多,对社会和家庭造成巨大的经济损失,同时也产生了一系列的健康问题,其中神经系统是成瘾的关键。近年来,越来越多的资料证明脑-肠轴的联系,人们发现肠道微生物的扰动对神经系统的调节有至关重要的作用。综述了烟酒和药物的成瘾机制,脑-肠轴影响宿主的代谢和对神经功能的调节,益生元和益生菌的摄入能引起肠道菌群的改变。深入分析脑-肠轴和肠道菌群代谢,通过益生菌,益生元改变菌群结构治疗成瘾成为今后研究的重点方向。     

大脑皮层内活动依赖的神经环路结构可塑性研究进展

哺乳动物大脑皮层内的神经环路在神经发育、学习记忆、神经和精神疾病过程中表现出令人惊异的结构和功能可塑性。随着新的成像技术及分子生物学方法的应用,在细胞和突触水平上观察活体皮层内神经环路的动态结构变化成为可能,因此近十年来有关活动依赖的神经环路结构可塑性方面的研究进展迅速。该文综述了该方面的部分实验结果,重点阐述个体生长发育、丰富环境、感觉剥夺、病理状态以及学习和记忆等过程和条件下树突的结构可塑性特点,尤其是树突棘的形态和数量变化特征;并简单介绍轴突的结构可塑性,以及结构可塑性相关的分子和细胞机制,最后提出未来该领域内亟待解决的问题。     

食欲素神经肽在应激过程中的作用

食欲素因其在调节能量代谢、睡眠和唤醒等生理功能中的作用而备受关注.近年来研究逐渐发现,食欲素参与应激和奖赏过程的调节,特别是其在药物成瘾过程中的作用是目前的研究热点.主要介绍食欲素系统与应激相关系统之间的神经联系,阐述了其在应激相关的生理、神经内分泌与行为反应中的作用.并进一步介绍了食欲素系统在应激诱发药物成瘾复吸过程中的作用.食欲素对应激反应的调控作用具有相对特异性,受应激的种类、其他应激相关神经递质系统及食欲素神经元的投射通路等多种因素影响.     

Addiction: Decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain's control circuit

Based on brain imaging findings, we present a model according to which addiction emerges as an imbalance in the information processing and integration among various brain circuits and functions. The dysfunctions reflect (a) decreased sensitivity of reward circuits, (b) enhanced sensitivity of memory circuits to conditioned expectations to drugs and drug cues, stress reactivity, and (c) negative mood, and a weakened control circuit. Although initial experimentation with a drug of abuse is largely a voluntary behavior, continued drug use can eventually impair neuronal circuits in the brain that are involved in free will, turning drug use into an automatic compulsive behavior. The ability of addictive drugs to co‐opt neurotransmitter signals between neurons (including dopamine, glutamate, and GABA) modifies the function of different neuronal circuits, which begin to falter at different stages of an addiction trajectory. Upon exposure to the drug, drug cues or stress this results in unrestrained hyperactivation of the motivation/drive circuit that results in the compulsive drug intake that characterizes addiction.     

Associative and sensorimotor cortico‐basal ganglia circuit roles in effects of abused drugs

The mammalian forebrain is characterized by the presence of several parallel cortico‐basal ganglia circuits that shape the learning and control of actions. Among these are the associative, limbic and sensorimotor circuits. The function of all of these circuits has now been implicated in responses to drugs of abuse, as well as drug seeking and drug taking. While the limbic circuit has been most widely examined, key roles for the other two circuits in control of goal‐directed and habitual instrumental actions related to drugs of abuse have been shown. In this review we describe the three circuits and effects of acute and chronic drug exposure on circuit physiology. Our main emphasis is on drug actions in dorsal striatal components of the associative and sensorimotor circuits. We then review key findings that have implicated these circuits in drug seeking and taking behaviors, as well as drug use disorders. Finally, we consider different models describing how the three cortico‐basal ganglia circuits become involved in drug‐related behaviors. This topic has implications for drug use disorders and addiction, as treatments that target the balance between the different circuits may be useful for reducing excessive substance use.     

Integrating synaptic plasticity and striatal circuit function in addiction

Exposure to addictive drugs causes changes in synaptic function within the striatal complex, which can either mimic or interfere with the induction of synaptic plasticity. These synaptic adaptations include changes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a ventral striatal subregion important for drug reward and reinforcement, as well as the dorsal striatum, which may promote habitual drug use. As the behavioral effects of drugs of abuse are long-lasting, identifying persistent changes in striatal circuits induced by in vivo drug experience is of considerable importance. Within the striatum, drugs of abuse have been shown to induce modifications in dendritic morphology, ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR) and the induction of synaptic plasticity. Understanding the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying these changes in striatal circuit function will provide insight into how drugs of abuse usurp normal learning mechanisms to produce pathological behavior.     

Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex in addiction: neuroimaging findings and clinical implications

The loss of control over drug intake that occurs in addiction was initially believed to result from disruption of subcortical reward circuits. However, imaging studies in addictive behaviours have identified a key involvement of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) both through its regulation of limbic reward regions and its involvement in higher-order executive function (for example, self-control, salience attribution and awareness). This Review focuses on functional neuroimaging studies conducted in the past decade that have expanded our understanding of the involvement of the PFC in drug addiction. Disruption of the PFC in addiction underlies not only compulsive drug taking but also accounts for the disadvantageous behaviours that are associated with addiction and the erosion of free will.     

Overlapping neuronal circuits in addiction and obesity: evidence of systems pathology

Drugs and food exert their reinforcing effects in part by increasing dopamine (DA) in limbic regions, which has generated interest in understanding how drug abuse/addiction relates to obesity. Here, we integrate findings from positron emission tomography imaging studies on DA's role in drug abuse/addiction and in obesity and propose a common model for these two conditions. Both in abuse/addiction and in obesity, there is an enhanced value of one type of reinforcer (drugs and food, respectively) at the expense of other reinforcers, which is a consequence of conditioned learning and resetting of reward thresholds secondary to repeated stimulation by drugs (abuse/addiction) and by large quantities of palatable food (obesity) in vulnerable individuals (i.e. genetic factors). In this model, during exposure to the reinforcer or to conditioned cues, the expected reward (processed by memory circuits) overactivates the reward and motivation circuits while inhibiting the cognitive control circuit, resulting in an inability to inhibit the drive to consume the drug or food despite attempts to do so. These neuronal circuits, which are modulated by DA, interact with one another so that disruption in one circuit can be buffered by another, which highlights the need of multiprong approaches in the treatment of addiction and obesity.     

Receptors and transmission in the brain-gut axis: potential for novel therapies. V. Fast and slow extrinsic modulation of dorsal vagal complex circuits

Vago-vagal reflex circuits in the medulla are responsible for the smooth coordination of the digestive processes carried out from the oral cavity to the transverse colon. In this themes article, we concentrate mostly on electrophysiological studies concerning the extrinsic modulation of these vago-vagal reflex circuits, with a particular emphasis on two types of modulation, i.e., by "fast" classic neurotransmitters and by "slow" neuromodulators. These examples review two of the most potent modulatory processes at work within the dorsal vagal complex, which have dramatic effects on gastrointestinal function. The reader should be mindful of the fact that many more different inputs from other central nervous system (CNS) loci or circulating humoral factors add to this complex mix of modulatory inputs. It is likely that similar long-term modulations of synaptic transmission occur with other neurotransmitters and may represent an important mechanism for the integration and regulation of neuronal behavior. Of course, this fact strongly militates against the success of any single drug or approach in the treatment of motility disorders having a CNS component.     

The optokinetic reflex as a tool for quantitative analyses of nervous system function in mice: application to genetic and drug-induced variation

The optokinetic reflex (OKR), which serves to stabilize a moving image on the retina, is a behavioral response that has many favorable attributes as a test of CNS function. The OKR requires no training, assesses the function of diverse CNS circuits, can be induced repeatedly with minimal fatigue or adaptation, and produces an electronic record that is readily and objectively quantifiable. We describe a new type of OKR test apparatus in which computer-controlled visual stimuli and streamlined data analysis facilitate a relatively high throughput behavioral assay. We used this apparatus, in conjunction with infrared imaging, to quantify basic OKR stimulus-response characteristics for C57BL/6J and 129/SvEv mouse strains and for genetically engineered lines lacking one or more photoreceptor systems or with an alteration in cone spectral sensitivity. A second generation (F2) cross shows that the characteristic difference in OKR frequency between C57BL/6J and 129/SvEv is inherited as a polygenic trait. Finally, we demonstrate the sensitivity and high temporal resolution of the OKR for quantitative analysis of CNS drug action. These experiments show that the mouse OKR is well suited for neurologic testing in the context of drug discovery and large-scale phenotyping programs.     

How contexts promote and prevent relapse to drug seeking

The contexts where drugs are self‐administered play an important role in regulating persistent drug taking and in relapse to such taking after periods of abstinence. Here, we review the behavioral and brain mechanisms enabling contexts to promote and prevent relapse to drug seeking. We review the key brain structures, their neuropharmacology and their connectivity. We discuss the similarities and differences between the mechanisms for context‐induced reinstatement of drug seeking vs. other forms of relapse to drug seeking in animal models and we highlight the numerous deficits in our understanding. We emphasize that current understanding, although significant, defies explanations in terms of models at the level of brain structures and their connectivity. Rather, we show that there is significant functional compartmentalization and segregation within these structures during reinstatement and extinction of drug seeking that parallels their anatomical segregation into circuits and channels. A key challenge is to recognize this complexity, understand how these circuits and channels are organized, as well as understand how different modes of activity of ensembles of neurons within them promote abstinence or relapse to drug seeking.     

In search of partners: linking extracellular proteases to substrates

Proteases function as molecular switches in signalling circuits at the cell surface and in the extracellular milieu. In light of the many proteases that are encoded by the genome, and the even larger number of bioactive substrates, it is crucial to identify which proteases cleave a particular substrate and which substrates individual proteases cleave. Elucidating the substrate degradomes of proteases will help us to understand the function of proteases in development and disease and to validate proteases as drug targets.     

The cortex as a central pattern generator

Vertebrate spinal cord and brainstem central pattern generator (CPG) circuits share profound similarities with neocortical circuits. CPGs can produce meaningful functional output in the absence of sensory inputs. Neocortical circuits could be considered analogous to CPGs as they have rich spontaneous dynamics that, similar to CPGs, are powerfully modulated or engaged by sensory inputs, but can also generate output in their absence. We find compelling evidence for this argument at the anatomical, biophysical, developmental, dynamic and pathological levels of analysis. Although it is possible that cortical circuits are particularly plastic types of CPG ('learning CPGs'), we argue that present knowledge about CPGs is likely to foretell the basic principles of the organization and dynamic function of cortical circuits.