过量合成ALA转基因烟草叶片光合与叶绿素荧光特性的研究

以转酿酒酵母Hem1基因的转基因烟草和野生型植株为材料,用Li-6400光合测定仪和PAM-2100叶绿素荧光仪检测了2种烟草不同叶位叶片光合和荧光参数,并考察了它们的生长情况.结果表明:过量合成ALA的转基因烟草植株具有更强的光合能力,并伴随着气孔导度(Gs)和蒸腾速率(Tr)提高.暗适应下转基因植株不同叶位叶片的初始荧光(Fo)没有明显差异,而野生型植株下部叶片F0明显升高;转基因植株最大荧光(Fm)、可变荧光(Fv)、PSⅡ最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)等参数均显著提高,特别是下部叶片表现得更为明显;在光照下,转基因植株PSⅡ有效光化学效率(Fv′/Fm′)和实际光化学效率(ΦPSⅡ)、荧光猝灭系数(qP)、电子传递速率(ETR)、光化学效率(Pc)以及进入PSⅡ反应中心的能量(Pc Ex)普遍高于野生型,而天线热耗散能量(Hd)以及非光化学荧光猝灭系数(NPQ)等明显低于野生型,且这些差异在基部叶片中表现得尤为突出.可见,过量合成ALA有利于延长烟草叶片光合寿命,提高光化学能量转换效应和光合产物积累,从而促进植株生长.     

叶绿素缺乏的大麦突变体PSⅡ光化学效率较高的原因(英)

在相同的叶绿素浓度下,叶绿素缺乏的大麦突变体的叶绿体在450～480nm和600～640nm波长范围的光吸收值比野生型略高,而在400～440nm和700～740nm波长范围的光吸收值明显高于野生型;突变体叶片和叶绿体的低温（77K）荧光发射强度较低,而两个光系低温荧光产量的比值（r685／F735）较高;失去Mg2 后,突变体和野生型的F685／F735和Fv／Fm均降低,但突变体的降低幅度较小;突变体的叶绿体中基粒片层数目较少、长度较短,而间质片层较长。这些结果表明,大麦突变体PSⅡ向PSⅠ的激发能转移较少是其PSⅡ光化学效率较高的重要原因。     

文心兰浅绿条纹突变体的生理生化及叶绿素荧光特性研究

以文心兰浅绿条纹突变体为材料,分析叶片光合色素含量和组成、叶绿素合成前体物质含量以及叶绿素荧光参数的变化,观察突变体叶绿体超微结构的改变,以探寻其叶色变异的生理基础。结果表明:(1)突变体叶绿素a(Chl a)、叶绿素b(Chl b)、类胡萝卜素(Car)和总叶绿素(Chl)含量分别比叶色正常植株显著降低了37.1%、34.0%、30.8%和36.3%。(2)突变体叶绿素生物合成受阻于胆色素原(PBG)到尿卟啉原Ⅲ(UrogenⅢ)的反应步骤。(3)突变体叶绿体发育存在明显的缺陷,基粒数目及基粒片层的垛叠层数明显减少,嗜锇颗粒及囊泡较多。(4)突变体初始荧光(Fo)比正常植株高39%,最大荧光(Fm)、最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)、PSⅡ有效光化学效率(Fv′/Fm′)和PSⅡ实际光化学效率(ΦPSⅡ)均显著低于正常植株,但光化学淬灭系数(qP)和非光化学淬灭系数(NPQ)与正常植株无显著差异。研究结果说明,文心兰叶绿素生物合成受阻和叶绿体结构发育不良,导致叶绿素的含量下降,致使突变体叶片呈现浅绿条纹,光能利用率降低。     

赤星病胁迫对不同抗性烟草品种光合作用和叶绿素荧光特性的影响

以不同烟草赤星病抗性品种JYH(抗病品种)和CBH(感病品种)为材料,在盆栽试验条件下,调查不同烟草赤星病胁迫程度(轻度胁迫、中度胁迫和重度胁迫)对光合色素含量、光合作用参数和叶绿素荧光动力学特征的影响。结果显示:1)烟草赤星病胁迫导致2个品种的叶绿素a、叶绿素b、总叶绿素和类胡萝卜素含量均呈下降趋势,且JYH的降幅小于CBH。2)除JYH的净光合速率在轻度胁迫下有所增加外,JYH、CBH的净光合速率、气孔导度因烟草赤星病胁迫而降低。2个品种的胞间CO2浓度、气孔限制值变化具有明显差异,烟草赤星病胁迫导致CBH的胞间CO2浓度上升,气孔限制值则明显下降,这与JYH在重度胁迫下的变化趋势一致。而JYH的胞间CO2浓度在轻度、中度胁迫降低,气孔限制值则呈上升趋势。3)烟草赤星病胁迫下,2个品种的初始荧光(F0)、非光化学猝灭系数(NPQ)均有所增加。重度胁迫下,JYH、CBH的F0分别比对照增加16.5%、34.48%,NPQ分别上升95.54%、137.45%,差异均达到显著水平。而各品种的最大荧光(Fm)、可变荧光(Fv)、PSⅡ最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)、PSⅡ潜在活性(Fv/F0)、光化学淬灭系数(qp)、PSⅡ实际光化学效率(ΦPSⅡ)在烟草赤星病胁迫下均呈下降趋势,降幅表现为JYHCBH。研究结果表明,JYH的光合色素、光合作用和叶绿素荧光特性受烟草赤星病胁迫影响小于CBH,维持较高的光合性能是对烟草赤星病具有较强抗性的生理基础。     

过量表达番茄类囊体膜抗坏血酸过氧化物酶基因（StAPX）提高了烟草种苗的抗氧化能力

为了探讨叶绿体类囊体膜抗坏血酸过氧化物酶（tAPX）与其抗氧化性的关系,从番茄叶片中分离了叶绿体类囊体膜抗坏血酸过氧化物酶基因（StA跚并转入到烟草中。以野生型（WT）、转正义StAPX烟草株系T3-3和T3-6为试材,测定了外源过氧化氢诱导的氧化胁迫条件下APX酶活性、过氧化氢酶（CAT）活性、过氧化氢（H2O2）含量、叶绿素荧光参数及叶绿素含量等。Northern杂交显示StAPX因的表达受外源H2O2氧化胁迫的诱导。氧化胁迫下转基因烟草的APX酶活性和清除H2O2的能力都显著高于野生型,并且转基因烟草比野生型具有更高的PSII最大光化学效率及叶绿素含量。结果表明,．刚尸舶勺过量表达有助于提高外源H2O2诱导的转基因烟草的抗氧化能力。     

高温对水稻黄叶突变体剑叶光合特性和叶绿体超微结构的影响

以水稻黄叶突变体为材料,进行高温胁迫处理(9:30～17:30,40℃;其它时间段与自然温度相同),研究高温胁迫对其剑叶光合特性和叶绿体超微结构的影响。结果表明:高温胁迫使水稻黄叶突变体剑叶净光合速率(Pn)、PSⅡ原初光化学效率(Fv/Fm)、PSⅡ光量子效率(фPSⅡ)和非循环光合电子传递速率(ETR)显著降低,初始荧光(F0)显著增加,同时使剑叶叶绿素、可溶性蛋白质含量显著降低,细胞膜透性显著增加,叶片的叶绿体内基粒和基质片层模糊、疏松,结构紊乱。研究发现,40℃高温胁迫致使水稻黄叶突变体剑叶叶绿体超微结构破坏,引起PSⅡ反应中心的光化学效率降低,最终造成叶片光合能力减弱。     

二硫苏糖醇处理导致大豆叶片两光系统间激发能分配失衡

通过叶绿素荧光技术研究了二硫苏糖醇(1,4-dithiothreitol, DTT)对大豆叶片光系统I(PSI)和光系统Ⅱ(PSⅡ)间激发能分配的影响.结果显示:DTT处理没有影响叶片最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm),但光下叶绿素荧光降低比率(Rfd)下降;强光下,DTT处理叶片PSⅡ开放反应中心激发能捕获效率(Fv′/Fm′)比对照高30%～40%;分配给PSⅠ的激发能比对照叶片低约30%,分配给PSⅡ的激发能比对照叶片高20%左右,激发能分配严重偏离平衡状态;DTT处理叶片PSⅡ的激发能压力(1-qP)较对照高,但非光化学猝灭(qN)明显比对照低;进一步的实验揭示DTT的引入抑制了玉米黄质(Z)的生成和状态转换(qT).据此,推测DTT可能通过抑制天线色素的调节能力导致两光系统间激发能分配失衡.     

低温胁迫对转新疆雪莲sikRbcs2基因烟草光合作用的影响

研究分布于新疆的雪莲(Saussurea involucrata)中的sikRbcs2基因在低温条件下对植物光合作用的影响,以16、10、6、4℃温度梯度处理非转基因型和转sikRbcs2基因型烟草,每个温度处理72 h,比较研究其叶绿素荧光特性和光合特性。实验分析结果:低温胁迫下,转基因型烟草叶片叶绿素a(Chla)、叶绿素b(Chlb)、叶绿素a+b(Chla+Chlb)、类胡萝卜素(Car)含量都显著高于非转基因型烟草。叶绿素荧光参数分析:低温胁迫下,转基因烟草PSⅡ最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)、q P(光化学猝灭系数)、ETR(电子传递效率)都显著或极显著高于非转基因型,光合参数测定:随着低温胁迫程度的加剧,转基因烟草和非转基因型烟草净光合速率(Pn)、气孔导度(Gs)、蒸腾速率(Tr)、胞间CO_2浓度(Ci)总体都呈下降趋势,但转基因烟草的净光合速率有一个明显的动态变化,先急剧下降后有一个稳定上升的趋势。通过对生长指标的测定发现:在低温处理后和恢复后转基因烟草生物量的积累都显著高于非转基因型烟草。研究结果表明:转新疆雪莲sikRbcs2基因的烟草在低温条件下具有较高的Fv/Fm、q P、ETR,对光合机构的损伤小,降低了低温胁迫效应,提高了烟草在低温胁迫条件下的耐受性。     

烟草花叶病毒对烟草叶片光合特征和POD表达的影响

以烤烟(Nicotiana tabacum L.)品种'中烟5号'为实验材料,对烟草健康株与感染烟草花叶病毒(TMV)株的叶绿素、光合速率、光合速率对光强的响应曲线、光暗反应荧光特征、POD活性及其表达等进行研究,以探讨TMV感染对烟草植株生理生态特征的影响.结果显示:病株的叶绿素a(Chl a)和叶绿素b(Chl b)含量显著低于健康株,但Chl a/Chl b值基本相同;病株暗中初始荧光(F0)、暗中最大荧光(Fm)、暗中可变荧光(Fv)、光下初始荧光(F0′)、光下最大荧光(Fm′)、光下可变荧光(Fv′)、非光化学猝灭系数(NPQ)、PSⅡ捕光效率(Fv′/Fm′)、PSⅡ实际光化学效率(ФPSⅡ)及光饱和点显著低于健康株;净光合速率在光强较大(＞1 500 μmol·m-2·s-1)时病株比健康株低,光强适中(1 500 μmol·m-2·s-1左右)时两者相差不大,光强较弱(＜1 500 μmol·m-2·s-1左右)时病株比健康株高;病株叶片的过氧化物酶(POD)活性显著升高,POD同工酶中一些大分子量蛋白分子表达量加大.研究表明,感染TMV使烟草植株对光抑制更为敏感,叶片的荧光激发能力和热耗散能力下降,PSⅡ反应中心捕光效率和光化学反应效率降低,光合电子传递能力和碳同化能力受到抑制;POD活性提高和表达量增加可能是诱导烟草抗病性的一个关键生理过程.     

强光及外源活性氧对莴苣叶绿素荧光的影响

莴苣叶绿体在强光处理下发生先抑制,主要表现为叶绿素荧光参数Fv／Fm和ΦPSⅡ降低;外源活性氧H2O2、O2·OH和1O2均能引起叶绿体PSⅡ光化学效率Fv／Fm不同程度的下降,其中以1O2影响最明显;H2O2在诱导叶绿体荧光猝灭过程中,引起荧光产量降低,而使qp、qN、ΦPSⅡ、KD上升;在H2O2诱导的叶绿体荧光猝灭过程中,Fe2 能使qN和KD低于对照;由于1O2的产生对PSⅡ反应中心造成了损伤,引起qp和ΦPSⅡ下降。     

Overexpression of sweet pepper glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase gene enhanced thermotolerance of photosynthetic apparatus in transgenic tobacco

In order to investigate the relationship between the lipid composition in thylakoid membrane and thermostability of pho-tosynthetic apparatus, tobacco transformed with sweet pepper sense glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPA T) gene were used to analyze the lipid composition in thylakoid membrane, the net photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters under high temperature stress. The results showed that the saturated extent of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), suifoquinovosyldiacylglycerol, digalactosyldiacylglycerol and phosphatidylglycerol in thylakoid membrane of transgenic tobacco T1 lines increased generally. Particularly, the saturated extent in MGDG increased obviously by 16.2% and 12.0% in T1-2 and T1-1, respectively. With stress temperature elevating, the maximum efficiency of photosystem Ⅱ the two lines and wild type tobacco plants decreased gradually, but those parameters decreased much less in transgenic plants. Even though the recovery process appeared differently in the donor and acceptor side of PSII in transgenic tobacco compared with wild-type plants, the entire capability of PSII recovered faster in transgenic tobacco, which was shown in Increase in saturated extent of thylakoid membrane Iipids in transgenic plants enhanced the stability of photosynthetic apparatus under high temperature stress.     

Accumulation of plant galactolipid affects cell morphology of Escherichia coli

Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) is a major constituent of thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts. Therefore, it is considered to have an important role in the maintenance of the complicated structure of the thylakoid membrane. We have succeeded in cloning the enzyme for MGDG synthesis and overexpressed it in Escherichia coli. In this study we analyzed the morphology of the E. coli harboring the gene. The fatty acid composition of its membrane lipids did not differ between the wild type and transformant, except for the appearance of MGDG. However, transformant cells appeared to be elongated. DAPI staining revealed the entire intracellular region of filamentous cells to be stained; therefore, the elongation of the cells is probably due to a defect in cell division. Atomic force microscopy revealed that the transformant had a smooth but scratched surface. It was concluded that the excessive accumulation of a non-bilayer lipid, MGDG, interfered with the translocation of proteins across the plasma membrane, including those for cell division.     

Effect of the Temperature on Violaxanthin De-Epoxidation: Comparison of the In Vivo and Model Systems

The xanthophyll cycle is a photoprotective mechanism operating in the thylakoid membranes of all higher plants, ferns, mosses and several algal groups. The occurrence of inverted hexagonal domains of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) in the membrane is postulated as an essential factor involved in violaxanthin de-epoxidation. The violaxanthin de-epoxidation was investigated in high-light illuminated Lemna trisulca at three temperatures (4, 12, and 25°C). The temperature dependence of this reaction was compared with kinetics of violaxanthin de-epoxidation at the same temperatures in MGDG micelles and in phosphatidylcholine (PC)–MGDG unilamellar liposomes. In both model systems and in the illuminated plants, a decrease in temperature resulted in lower zeaxanthin production. We found that the presence of MGDG in PC liposomes was necessary for the de-epoxidation reaction. With the increase in MGDG proportion in liposomes, the percentage of transformed violaxanthin was also increasing. We suggest that the violaxanthin de-epoxidation takes place within lipid matrix of the thylakoid membranes inside the MGDG-rich domains. Presence of the reversed hexagonal phase in the thylakoid membranes has been already reported in our previous papers and by other authors using ³¹P-NMR and freeze-fracturing techniques.     

The main thylakoid membrane lipid monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) promotes the de-epoxidation of violaxanthin associated with the light-harvesting complex of photosystem II (LHCII)

In higher plants, the major part of the xanthophyll cycle pigment violaxanthin (Vx) is non-covalently bound to the main light-harvesting complex of PSII (LHCII). Under saturating light conditions Vx has to be released from its binding site into the surrounding lipid phase, where it is converted to zeaxanthin (Zx) by the enzyme Vx de-epoxidase (VDE). In the present study we investigated the influence of thylakoid lipids on the de-epoxidation of Vx, which was still associated with the LHCII. We isolated LHCII with different concentrations of native, endogenous lipids and Vx by sucrose gradient centrifugation or successive cation precipitation. Analysis of the different LHCII preparations showed that the concentration of LHCII-associated Vx was correlated with the concentration of the main thylakoid lipid monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) associated with the complexes. Decreases in the MGDG content of the LHCII led to a diminished Vx concentration, indicating that a part of the total Vx pool was located in an MGDG phase surrounding the LHCII, whereas another part was bound to the LHCII apoproteins. We further studied the convertibility of LHCII-associated Vx in in-vitro enzyme assays by addition of isolated VDE. We observed an efficient and almost complete Vx conversion in the LHCII fractions containing high amounts of endogenous MGDG. LHCII preparations with low concentrations of MGDG exhibited a strongly reduced Vx de-epoxidation, which could be increased by addition of exogenous, pure MGDG. The de-epoxidation of LHCII-associated Vx was saturated at a much lower concentration of native, endogenous MGDG compared with the concentration of isolated, exogenous MGDG, which is needed for optimal VDE activity in in-vitro assays employing pure isolated Vx.     

Photosynthetic energy conversion under extreme conditions--II: the significance of lipids under light limited growth in Antarctic sea ice diatoms

Low photosynthetic active radiation is a strong determinant in the development and growth of sea ice algae. The algae appear to have universal mechanisms to overcome light limitation. One important process, which is induced under light limitation, is the desaturation of chloroplast membrane lipids. In order to discover whether this process is universally valid in sea ice diatoms, we investigated three species coexisting in chemostats illuminated with 15 and 2 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1) at -1 degrees C. Growth under 2 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1) caused a 50% increase in monogalactosyldiacylglycerols (MGDG) thylakoid membrane related 20:5 n-3 fatty acids. This fatty acid supports the fluidity of the thylakoid membrane and therefore the velocity of electron flow, which is indicated by increasing rate constants for the electron transport between Q(A) (first stable electron acceptor) and bound Q(B) (second stable electron acceptor) (11.16 +/- 1.34 to 23.24 +/- 1.35 relative units). Two micromol photons m(-2) s(-1) furthermore resulted in higher amounts of non-lipid bilayer forming MGDG in relation to other bilayer forming lipids, especially digalactosydiacylglycerol (DGDG). The ratio of MGDG:DGDG increased from 3.4 +/- 0.3 to 5.7 +/- 0.3. The existence of bilayer thylakoid membranes with high proportions of non. bilayer forming lipids is only possible when sufficient thylakoid pigment-protein complexes are present. If more thylakoid pigment-protein complexes are present in membranes, as found under extreme light limitation, less bilayer forming lipids such as DGDG are required to stabilize the bilayer structure. Differences in protein contents between both light intensities were not found. Consequently pigment contents which nearly doubled under 2 micromol photons m(-2) s(-1) must be responsible in balancing the potential stability loss resulting from an increase in MGDG:DGDG ratio.     

Functional roles of the major chloroplast lipids in the violaxanthin cycle

Monogalactosyldiacylglyceride (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglyceride (DGDG) are the major membrane lipids of chloroplasts. The question of the specialized functions of these unique lipids has received limited attention. One function is to support violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE) activity, an enzyme of the violaxanthin cycle. To understand better the properties of this system, the effects of galactolipids and phosphatidylcholines on VDE activity were examined by two independent methods. The results show that the micelle-forming lipid (MGDG) and bilayer forming lipids (DGDG and phosphatidylcholines) support VDE activity differently. MGDG supported rapid and complete de-epoxidation starting at a threshold lipid concentration (10 μM) coincident with complete solubilization of violaxanthin. In contrast, DGDG supported slow but nevertheless complete to nearly complete de-epoxidation at a lower lipid concentration (6.7 μM) that did not completely solubilize violaxanthin. Phosphotidylcholines showed similar effects as DGDG except that de-epoxidation was incomplete. Since VDE requires solubilized violaxanthin, aggregated violaxanthin in DGDG at low concentration must become solubilized as de-epoxidation proceeds. High lipid concentrations had lower activity possibly due to formation of multilayered structures (liposomes) that restrict accessibility of violaxanthin to VDE. MGDG micelles do not present such restrictions. The results indicate VDE operates throughout the lipid phase of the single bilayer thylakoid membrane and is not limited to putative MGDG micelle domains. Additionally, the results also explain the differential partitioning of violaxanthin between the envelope and thylakoid as due to the relative solubilities of violaxanthin and zeaxanthin in MGDG, DGDG and phospholipids. The violaxanthin cycle is hypothesized to be a linked system of the thylakoid and envelope for signal transduction of light stress.     

Structural insights and membrane binding properties of MGD1, the major galactolipid synthase in plants

Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) are the major lipid components of photosynthetic membranes, and hence the most abundant lipids in the biosphere. They are essential for assembly and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. In Arabidopsis, the first step of galactolipid synthesis is catalyzed by MGDG synthase 1 (MGD1), which transfers a galactosyl residue from UDP‐galactose to diacylglycerol (DAG). MGD1 is a monotopic protein that is embedded in the inner envelope membrane of chloroplasts. Once produced, MGDG is transferred to the outer envelope membrane, where DGDG synthesis occurs, and to thylakoids. Here we present two crystal structures of MGD1: one unliganded and one complexed with UDP. MGD1 has a long and flexible region (approximately 50 amino acids) that is required for DAG binding. The structures reveal critical features of the MGD1 catalytic mechanism and its membrane binding mode, tested on biomimetic Langmuir monolayers, giving insights into chloroplast membrane biogenesis. The structural plasticity of MGD1, ensuring very rapid capture and utilization of DAG, and its interaction with anionic lipids, possibly driving the construction of lipoproteic clusters, are consistent with the role of this enzyme, not only in expansion of the inner envelope membrane, but also in supplying MGDG to the outer envelope and nascent thylakoid membranes.     

Influence of thylakoid membrane lipids on the structure of aggregated light‐harvesting complexes of the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana and the green alga Mantoniella squamata

The study investigated the effect of the thylakoid membrane lipids monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), sulphoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) on the structure of two algal light‐harvesting complexes (LHCs). In contrast to higher plants whose thylakoid membranes are characterized by an enrichment of the neutral galactolipids MGDG and DGDG, both the green alga Mantoniella squamata and the centric diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana contain membranes with a high content of the negatively charged lipids SQDG and PG. The algal thylakoids do not show the typical grana–stroma differentiation of higher plants but a regular arrangement. To analyze the effect of the membrane lipids, the fucoxanthin chlorophyll protein (FCP) complex of T. pseudonana and the LHC of M. squamata (MLHC) were prepared by successive cation precipitation using Triton X‐100 as detergent. With this method, it is possible to isolate LHCs with a reduced amount of associated lipids in an aggregated state. The results from 77 K fluorescence and photon correlation spectroscopy show that neither the neutral galactolipids nor the negatively charged lipids are able to significantly alter the aggregation state of the FCP or the MLHC. This is in contrast to higher plants where SQDG and PG lead to a strong disaggregation of the LHCII whereas MGDG and DGDG induce the formation of large macroaggregates. The results indicate that LHCs which are integrated into thylakoid membranes with a high amount of negatively charged lipids and a regular arrangement are less sensitive to lipid‐induced structural alterations than their counterparts in membranes enriched in neutral lipids with a grana–stroma differentiation.     

Critical regulation of galactolipid synthesis controls membrane differentiation and remodeling in distinct plant organs and following environmental changes

The plant galactolipids, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), are the most abundant lipids in chloroplast membranes, and they constitute the majority of total membrane lipids in plants. MGDG is synthesized by two types of MGDG synthase, type-A (MGD1) and type-B (MGD2, MGD3). These MGDG synthases have distinct roles in Arabidopsis. In photosynthetic organs, Type A MGD is responsible for the bulk of MGDG synthesis, whereas Type B MGD is expressed in non-photosynthetic organs such as roots and flowers and mainly contributes to DGDG accumulation under phosphate deficiency. Similar to MGDG synthesis, DGDG is synthesized by two synthases, DGD1 and DGD2; DGD1 is responsible for the majority of DGDG synthesis, whereas DGD2 makes its main contribution under phosphate deficiency. These galactolipid synthases are regulated by light, plant hormones, redox state, phosphatidic acid levels, and various stress conditions such as drought and nutrient limitation. Maintaining the appropriate ratio of these two galactolipids in chloroplasts is important for stabilizing thylakoid membranes and maximizing the efficiency of photosynthesis. Here we review progress made in the last decade towards a better understanding of the pathways regulating plant galactolipid biosynthesis.