Cultural ecosystem services of mountain regions: Modelling the aesthetic value

Mountain regions meet an increasing demand for pleasant landscapes, offering many cultural ecosystem services to both their residents and tourists. As a result of global change, land managers and policy makers are faced with changes to this landscape and need efficient evaluation techniques to assess cultural ecosystem services. This study provides a spatially explicit modelling approach to estimating aesthetic landscape values by relating spatial landscape patterns to human perceptions via a photo-based survey. The respondents attributed higher aesthetic values to the Alpine landscape in respect to areas with settlements, infrastructure or intensive agricultural use. The aesthetic value of two study areas in the Central Alps (Stubai Valley, Austria and Vinschgau, Italy) was modelled for 10,215 viewpoints along hiking trails according to current land cover and a scenario considering the spontaneous reforestation of abandoned land. Viewpoints with high aesthetic values were mainly located at high altitude, allowing long vistas, and included views of lakes or glaciers, and the lowest values were for viewpoints close to streets and in narrow valleys with little view. The aesthetic values of the reforestation scenario decreased mainly at higher altitudes, but the whole area was affected, reducing aesthetic value by almost 10% in Stubai Valley and 15% in Vinschgau. Our proposed modelling approach allows the estimation of aesthetic values in spatial and qualitative terms for most viewpoints in the European Alps. The resulting maps can be used as information and the basis for discussion by stakeholders, to support the decision-making process and landscape planning. This paper also discusses the role of mountain farming in preserving an attractive landscape and related cultural values.     

基于格局-过程生态适应性循环三维框架的自然景观生态风险评价——以黄土高原为例

传统的景观生态风险评估侧重于评价景观镶嵌体相对于最优格局的偏离程度，忽视生态系统过程和景观类型内部分异，使得黄土高原景观生态风险评估存在一定的片面性。综合"格局-过程"的生态适应性循环三维框架，构建适合自然生态系统的景观生态风险评价指标体系，对黄土高原2000年、2010年、2017年的景观生态风险进行评估。从空间分异来看，相较于传统的景观格局风险指数法仅在沙漠景观呈现高风险单一结果，本研究结果显示黄土高原景观生态风险由高到低依次为城市和沙漠景观、中部丘陵沟壑区草地景观、西北荒漠草地景观和东南部农田景观、东南部高山林地景观，具有明显空间分异。从时间变化来看，生态工程实施以来黄土高原景观生态风险总体呈现持续下降趋势，平均值由0.410降低到0.385，但2010-2017年下降不明显，生态工程持续实施对景观生态风险持续下降作用变弱。其中，自然景观（林地和草地）受生态工程促进生态风险持续降低，而人工景观（城市和农田）尤其是城市范围的不断扩大促使区域生态风险升高明显，建议加强城市土地集约高效利用，同时限制北部环境恶劣小城镇的发展。此外，中部丘陵沟壑区草地恢复力不足和降水侵蚀力增强也会促使风险升高，建议在生态保护时给予重点考虑。     

观赏草景观效果评价指标体系及其模糊综合评判

从生态价值、资源价值和美学价值三方面构建了观赏草景观效果评价指标体系,并应用模糊综合评判方法对北京植物园和南中轴公共绿地的观赏草景观效果进行了评价.结果表明：通过该评价体系得出北京植物园和南中轴公共绿地观赏草景观很美的隶属度分别为0.459和0.413,美的隶属度分别为0.302和0.301.评价结果与公众感觉和反应一致,说明该方法适用于观赏草景观效果的分析评价.     

Demonstrating the importance of intangible ecosystem services from peri-urban landscapes

Among ecosystem services, the various categories of intangible services linked to human perception, such as aesthetics, recreational values and cultural heritage, must be rated alongside tangible services linked to physical processes, such as wildlife habitats, clean water and air, and filter- and buffer effects. This is a pre-requisite for a sustainable development with a balance between ecological, social and economic values. We analyse ecosystem services in areas of the urban fringe of Copenhagen, where the services provided are mainly related to human perception. We employ relatively simple methods in selected landscapes to qualify or quantify the aesthetics and recreational value, and the scale of the welfare economic value of these ecosystem services. In the first case area, the Danish state acquired 50 villas covering more than 50 ha in order to recreate open vistas and gain access for the public to the seaside. In the second case area, peri-urban open landscapes were protected by conservation orders, to maintain and enhance the benefits of green space for the growing urban population. We assess the value – in a broad sense – of these ecosystem services using three practical methods: a landscape evaluation in terms of services and qualities, an assessment of actual recreational use, and finally an assessment of the costs – in terms of residential development values lost – of securing the provision of aesthetic qualities and recreational opportunities.Searching the original planning documents we uncovered the original motivation for the land evaluation and decision. The arguments behind the designation and protection of the areas were primarily aesthetic and potentials for recreational use. The two areas receive annually 2–2.5 million and 400.000 visits respectively, proving their strong recreational value. The value of the demolished houses in the first case area exceeds 115 million €, and the value of the lost development opportunities in the second case area exceeds 280 million €.By combination the three methods, we substantiated that the intangible services may dominate the tangible in cases like these, stressing the need for planners to assess the role and value hereof.     

城市景观生态风险评估框架与实践——以北京天坛地区为例

当前，城市景观生态风险研究缺少科学合理、方便实用的评估框架。作者基于景观生态风险评估基本范式，明确了城市景观生态服务价值的测算方法，分析了引起生态损害的自然因素和人类活动因素，形成了城市景观生态风险评估的技术框架和参数体系；继而以北京天坛地区为研究区，开展了典型城市景观生态风险的定量评估。结果表明：（1）天坛地区景观生态价值总量约为2.41亿元。区域的历史文化价值最高，教育和美学景观价值紧随其后。（2）城市景观生态受损概率呈现"北高南低"的空间分布格局。生态受损概率的高值区面积占整个区域总面积的22.2%，主要分布在珠市口、磁器口和崇文门附近区域。（3）城市景观生态风险呈现"北低南高"的空间分布格局。高风险区主要分布在天坛公园内的文物建筑周边。本研究提供了一个可参考的城市景观生态风险评估应用框架，对生态风险评估中的不确定性进行了讨论，研究针对天坛案例区的具体结论有助于城市管理者避免潜在的风险。     

Paddock trees, parrots and agricultural production: An urgent need for large-scale, long-term restoration in south-eastern Australia

Summary Scattered trees, or ‘paddock trees’, are keystone structures, which provide multiple ecological values. However, they are in decline in many places. This has serious implications for species that use them, such as the vulnerable Superb Parrot (Polytelis swainsonii) of south‐eastern Australia. We outline three key aspects of the ecology, biology and distribution of the species that illustrate the implications of scattered tree decline. These are that (i) it depends on trees; (ii) it lives across agricultural landscapes; and (iii) it uses scattered tree landscapes dynamically in response to climate variation. We outline the dual challenge of maintaining populations of both scattered trees and the Superb Parrot over large scales and over the long term. Without urgent restoration action, a narrow bottleneck (where there are few mature trees) will make the long‐term future of the Superb Parrot precarious in these landscapes. We outline a vision for future landscapes that addresses this challenge, including the development of a form of Australian ‘wood‐pasture’. We suggest some ways that might be implemented at two scales. At the farm scale, we suggest (i) protecting what remnant vegetation we currently have; (ii) recruiting future large, old trees; (iii) sequentially setting aside land to ensure whole‐of‐farm tree regeneration; (iv) use of incentives to encourage restoration actions; and (v) using a revolving land fund to purchase and reorganize farms into economically and ecologically sustainable units. At the landscape scale, we suggest (i) the need for coordination of long‐term landscape restoration plans; (ii) the possible collaborative management of adjacent farms to ensure economic and ecological sustainability. We conclude that addressing the large‐scale and long‐term challenges of restoring scattered trees in landscapes occupied by the Superb Parrot could restore lost or diminished ecological services. This challenge illustrates the need for action at both the farm and the landscape scale that is planned over the short, medium and long term.     

基于SolVES模型的关中-天水经济区生态系统文化服务评估

随着人类对于生态系统服务的需求持续增加,生态系统服务的评估逐渐成为研究热点。其中文化服务因其自身的无形性常在研究中被忽视且难以衡量。选取关中-天水经济区为研究区域,应用Sol VES模型并生成5种价值指数地图和价值总和地图来评估该区域生态系统的文化服务。结果表明:审美价值在秦岭山脉和城市公园等区域较高;娱乐价值在娱乐机会较多、交通便利的城市和秦岭北麓区域更高;文化与历史价值集中在历史文化底蕴深厚的城市地区;精神价值在与城市距离较近、有山川分布的森林公园更高。Sol VES模型在大范围区域的应用取得了较好的效果同时为政府进行生态建设和规划提供了科学依据。     

Landscape heterogeneity as an ecological filter of species traits

Landscape heterogeneity is a major driver of biodiversity in agricultural areas and represents an important parameter in conservation strategies. However, most landscape ecology studies measure gamma diversity of a single habitat type, despite the assessment of multiple habitats at a landscape scale being more appropriate. This study aimed to determine the effects of landscape composition and spatial configuration on life-history trait distribution in carabid beetle and herbaceous plant communities. Here, we assessed the gamma diversity of carabid beetles and plants by sampling three dominant habitats (woody habitats, grasslands and crops) across 20 landscapes in western France. RLQ and Fourth Corner three-table analyses were used to assess the association of dispersal, phenology, reproduction and trophic level traits with landscape characteristics. Landscape composition and configuration were both significant in explaining functional composition. Carabid beetles and plants showed similar response regarding phenology, i.e. open landscapes were associated with earlier breeding species. Carabid beetle dispersal traits exhibited the strongest relationship with landscape structure; for instance, large and apterous species preferentially inhabited woody landscapes, whereas small and macropterous species preferentially inhabited open landscapes. Heavy seeded plant species dominated in intensified agricultural landscapes (high % crops), possibly due to the removal of weeds (which are usually lightweight seeded species). The results of this study emphasise the roles of landscape composition and configuration as ecological filters and the importance of preserving a range of landscape types to maintain functional biodiversity at regional scales.     

Is plant temporal beta diversity of field margins related to changes in management practices?

Field margins have considerable ecological significance in agriculture-dominated landscapes by supporting biodiversity and associated services. However, agricultural changes during mid-20th century led to their drastic loss with a serious threat for biodiversity. Using time-series data, we aimed to get better insights into processes underlying plant patterns of field margins through time by i) quantifying plant temporal beta diversity components, ii) assessing whether the observed changes in plant communities can be related to changes in management practices applied to field margins. During the springs of 1994, 1998 and 2001, we surveyed plant communities and management practices of the same 116 field margins in three contrasted landscapes. We estimated temporal beta diversity in plant communities and partitioned it into its two dissimilarity resultant components, accounting for replacement of species (i.e. turnover) and for the nested gain or loss of species (i.e. nestedness). We then tested whether the observed changes in plant communities between 1994 and 1998 and, between 1998 and 2001 were related to changes in management practices using linear models. Plant communities of field margins exhibited strong temporal beta diversity dominated by turnover. Temporal turnover in plant communities was partly related to changes in management practices, i.e., a decrease of grazing concomitant to an increase of herbicide spraying. However, relationships were not consistent between all landscape contexts nor time period, suggesting that other unmeasured deterministic or stochastic processes could be driving the observed plant patterns. Taken together, our results suggest that maintaining a wide diversity of field margins with contrasted management contribute to maintaining plant diversity at a landscape scale. They underline the value of investigating plant temporal diversity patterns using time-series data and thus, the need to develop long-term studies making it possible to understand ecological processes shaping plant communities in agricultural landscapes.     

Educational values and services of ecosystems and landscapes – An overview

Education is one of the multiple services that ecosystems and landscapes provide to societies. Despite its importance to formal and informal learning and nature-based, cognitive tourism, it is hardly taken into account in the various quantification approaches of ecosystem services. The article provides an overview of landscape educational values and the educational ecosystem service. Here, the forms of the use of landscape educational values have been summarised and the indicators for the quantification of the educational ecosystem service proposed in the literature reviewed. The criteria for the evaluation of the educational values of landscape were acquired from the literature and discussed. In order to obtain more practical viewpoints on those criteria, an exploratory survey with young experts (n = 37) from two universities of environmental sciences was conducted. Within this step, the expert method for the evaluation of the educational values of landscapes was applied. However, the results show an extremely high level of subjectivity and dependence on personal experience regarding outdoor environmental education. Nonetheless, the article can contribute to acquiring knowledge in cultural ecosystem service assessment and the application of this concept, especially in terms of the criteria and indicators which can be potentially used for the assessments.     

贵州省生态系统服务价值时空演变及其对景观格局变化的响应

贵州省是我国生态文明试验区,也是世界上岩溶地貌发育最典型的地区之一,探明其生态系统服务价值变化及其与景观格局在空间上的相关性分布特征,有利于因地制宜地制定生态环境治理和保护措施。本研究分析了2005—2018年间贵州省景观格局和生态系统服务的时空变化,并构建二者之间的地理加权回归模型,探讨其相关系数在空间上的变化。结果表明: 2005—2018年间,贵州省景观类型的转移主要发生在建设用地、森林、水域、草地和农田5种景观之间,景观破碎度和多样性增加;生态系统服务价值逐年增长,森林是贵州省生态系统服务价值的主要贡献者,生态系统服务以调节服务为主;对于高价值景观类型而言,多样性提升和破碎度降低有利于生态系统服务价值增长;而在低价值景观类型集中的区域,则呈现出相反的影响效果。应根据贵州省不同区域的生态环境特征,调整景观转移方向和不同景观类型的多样性和破碎度空间分布,从而实现生态系统服务价值增长。     

Modelling the spatial distribution of linear landscape elements in Europe

Linear landscape elements, such as ditches, hedgerows, lines of trees and field margins, provide important habitats and ecosystem services and function as ecological infrastructure for species within agricultural landscapes. Spatial maps of the distribution of these elements are needed to better represent landscape structure within regional scale environmental assessments. We present wall-to-wall maps for green lines, ditches and grass margins for Europe, using spatial modelling of ground observations on linear features from the 2009 LUCAS (land use/cover area frame statistical survey) database. We compare different spatial interpolation methods, ranging from spatial autocorrelation-based methods to methods that explain the occurrence of elements based on biophysical and socio-economic information. Our results are 1 km² resolution maps of the occurrence of linear landscape elements for Europe. Independent validation of green lines based on aerial photographs showed the best results for interpolation based on regionally estimated regressions relating the occurrence of landscape elements to environmental and socio-economic location factors. The results confirm the importance of the underlying biophysical and socio-economic factors on the presence and abundance of linear landscape elements. However, the total explanatory strength of the considered factors is moderate and a considerable uncertainty in the exact distribution remains.     

四川盆地多重生态系统服务景观指数评价与服务簇识别

明确多重生态系统服务与生态系统服务簇的空间格局对于维持区域生态安全格局与可持续发展至关重要。在评估四川盆地2015年6种生态系统服务的基础上,计算了表征综合水平的多重生态系统服务景观指数;进而分析了生态系统服务间权衡与协同关系;并基于K-均值聚类法识别了研究区内生态系统服务簇的空间格局。研究结果表明：（1）研究区的多重生态系统服务景观指数平均值达到3.12,同时具有明显的空间分异性,整体上呈现出东南高西北低的空间分布格局,高值区主要分布于川东平行岭谷区,以林、草地为主的区域最高,城市建成区及其邻近地区最低。（2）6种生态系统服务空间异质性显著,且不同服务间协同与权衡关系并存,其中碳汇、生境质量和水土保持服务三者间的协同关系显著,碳汇、生境质量和水土保持服务与娱乐和粮食供给服务间的权衡关系均较强;产水服务与其他各项服务间的权衡与协同关系均较弱。（3）四川盆地可划分为文化旅游、食物供给、生态保育和多功能复合均衡型4种服务簇,其空间布局与内部结构分异明显。文化旅游型服务簇面积最小,面积占比为3.11%,主要分布于成都和重庆城镇及其周边地区,其提供多重生态系统服务功能的能力最弱;食物供给型服务簇主要位于成都平原、浅丘及部分河谷区域,面积约占36.23%;生态保育型服务簇主要分布于盆周山地,以林地为主导,其提供多重生态系统服务功能的能力最强,面积占比达22.61%;多功能复合均衡型服务簇分布最广,面积占比为38.04%,集中于川中、川东丘陵及平行岭谷槽谷区域。采取差异化优化措施有利于整体提升四川盆地生态系统服务能力,维护区域生态安全格局。     

城市生态景观研究的基础理论框架与技术构架

构建人与自然和谐的生态景观是当今城市发展的重要目标之一,统一的内涵和完善的指标体系是城市生态景观规划和设计的迫切需求。通过概括城市生态景观的基本内涵和主要特征,认为其核心价值包括可持续性、生态经济效益及和谐性。据此,提出了8条指导原则,包括景观自然度、物种安全性和多样性、雨水利用效率、污染物排放和处理、绿色能源和材料利用、局地小气候调节、景观视觉享受以及精神内涵和文化品位,并根据文献资料和行业导则,整理并归纳了有关的定量评价指标和适用范围。最后总结了城市生态景观的技术构架,以及在资源保护和节约、功能与形式的有机结合、系统生态价值最大化等方面亟待解决的关键技术。为城市生态景观研究提供基础理论框架,也可以为城市生态景观的具体实践提供参考。     

基于景观格局的锦州湾沿海经济开发区生态风险分析

以辽宁省锦州湾沿海经济开发区为研究区,利用1992、2000和2007年3个时期的TM遥感影像为数据源,通过计算各景观格局指数,引入生态风险指数,利用GIS和地统计学,对生态风险指数进行采样和空间插值,得到基于景观格局的生态风险分布图。运用相对指标法对生态风险指数进行分级,将研究区域划分为低生态风险区、较低生态风险区、中等生态风险区、较高生态风险区和高生态风险区5个等级,在此基础上通过将不同时期的生态风险图层的叠加运算,分析了研究区景观生态风险的时空变化情况。结果表明：近15年来研究区生态风险主要以中等程度为主;处于低、较低生态风险程度的区域面积变化不大,空间分布也一直位于西部低山丘陵地区;较高生态风险区域面积增加较为显著,主要发生在兴城市和绥中县东南沿海地区;高生态风险区面积随着未利用地和芦苇湿地等高生态脆弱性景观类型面积的减少而略有下降。     

基于有效距离模型的连云港围垦新区水体景观连通性

景观连通性是衡量景观生态服务效力的重要指标.基于GIS技术,利用有效距离模型对连云港围垦新区连云新城水体进行景观连通性分析.结果表明: 连云新城水体景观整体连通性较差;水体景观连通性与生态过程特性、生态服务价值和空间位置密切相关.斑块生态服务价值越高,其对水体景观整体连通性贡献越大.一些具有长条状结构的斑块对提高景观连通性起着关键作用.斑块连通重要值分级及功能类群分类的结果表明,连云新城水体规划符合Forman的不可替代格局理论,新城规划和建设时应优先考虑和保护相应功能类群的水体景观斑块.在景观生态规划时,连通性应作为一个重要指标加以考量;构建生态廊道要考虑生态景观数量上的配置,更要重视景观的空间位置布局,以提高景观的整体连通性.
     

An improved neutral landscape model for recreating real landscapes and generating landscape series for spatial ecological simulations

Many studies have assessed the effect of landscape patterns on spatial ecological processes by simulating these processes in computer‐generated landscapes with varying composition and configuration. To generate such landscapes, various neutral landscape models have been developed. However, the limited set of landscape‐level pattern variables included in these models is often inadequate to generate landscapes that reflect real landscapes. In order to achieve more flexibility and variability in the generated landscapes patterns, a more complete set of class‐ and patch‐level pattern variables should be implemented in these models. These enhancements have been implemented in Landscape Generator (LG), which is a software that uses optimization algorithms to generate landscapes that match user‐defined target values. Developed for participatory spatial planning at small scale, we enhanced the usability of LG and demonstrated how it can be used for larger scale ecological studies. First, we used LG to recreate landscape patterns from a real landscape (i.e., a mountainous region in Switzerland). Second, we generated landscape series with incrementally changing pattern variables, which could be used in ecological simulation studies. We found that LG was able to recreate landscape patterns that approximate those of real landscapes. Furthermore, we successfully generated landscape series that would not have been possible with traditional neutral landscape models. LG is a promising novel approach for generating neutral landscapes and enables testing of new hypotheses regarding the influence of landscape patterns on ecological processes. LG is freely available online.     

城市绿地生态评价研究进展

城市绿地的科学评价为绿地的规划和管理提供了参考,对人们正确认识和改造绿地建设起着重要的作用,为城市绿地生态功能的发挥提供了重要的依据和保障。以绿地结构的评价为基础,总结了城市绿地生态功能、服务评价、健康评价的方法和研究进展;提出了城市绿地生态风险评价的基本方法并概括了城市绿地可持续评价的研究方向。结果显示:当前城市绿地的生态评价在范围上逐渐从微观尺度发展到宏观尺度,日益强调绿地的生态服务功能,重点关注于绿地的碳储量与降温增湿功能与效益评价以及价值化研究;城市绿地的健康评价和可持续性评价均尚处于初级的探索阶段。指出了城市绿地生态评价的关键在于评价结果在管理和规划中的应用,在评价内容上必须关注各部分的结合,在评价方法上应该借助基础研究的长期监测、评价的量化以及多学科交叉的渗透。     

沈阳市市域景观功能区划及发展策略

依据自然要素（地貌和土地适宜性）和人为要素（人类活动强度）,对沈阳市域进行了景观功能区划．结果表明：沈阳市可分为经济文化支持区、生态协调区（南部低平原协调亚区和北部高平原协调亚区）、生态支持区（东部生态支持亚区、西部保护型生态支持亚区）和生态屏障区．经济文化支持区需强化其文化经济的辐射功能,同时维持和保护现有的自然及人工绿地生态系统;生态支持区需大力发展对自然破坏程度小、无污染的产业,以发挥其生态服务功能;生态协调区是自然和人工生态系统的复合体,对其他生态功能区起到平衡、稳定的作用,应控制该区建设用地,保持现有的自然和近自然系统,加强生态廊道建设,强化自然系统间的功能联系;生态屏障区需重视自身生态环境的脆弱性,做到保护和发展并重．     

基于SolVES模型的生态系统服务社会价值评估——以吴淞炮台湾湿地森林公园为例

人类活动对生态系统不同服务的多样化需求日益增长,传统的生态系统服务价值评估实践多以经济学方法为主,较少关注社会属性和空间异质性.本文选取上海市吴淞炮台湾湿地森林公园作为研究对象,采用SolVES模型对其美学、生物多样性、文化、娱乐等服务的社会价值进行量化和空间分析.结果表明: 公园的热点区域集中在草坪乐园、吴淞炮台纪念广场、临江观景台等视野开阔或临近水景观的区域;游客对公园内美学、历史、生物多样性、娱乐、文化、康体健身价值较为偏好;水景观和路网布局影响游客对不同社会价值的偏好程度,美学、生物多样性、娱乐和康体健身价值高低与距水体远近在一定范围内呈显著负相关关系,美学和康体健身价值高低与距道路远近呈显著负相关关系;游憩频率影响游客对生物多样性价值和康体健身价值的感受及偏好;SolVES模型在评估中小尺度生态系统服务社会价值方面具有较好的可行性.