MEK1/2抑制剂U0126抑制肠道病毒71型的复制

为了揭示肠道病毒71型(enterovirus71,EV71)的复制与宿主细胞Raf/MEK/ERK信号通路(简称ERK通路)的相互关系,本研究应用临床诊断为手足口病的患儿疱疹液,通过易感细胞分离培养、RT-PCR及序列测定,以及Western印迹技术等方法,成功分离到EV71临床株.进一步用该分离株感染易感细胞,通过观察宿主细胞p-ERK1/2蛋白磷酸化水平、病毒特异性衣壳蛋白VP1水平、病毒半数组织培养感染量(50%tissue culture infectious dose,TCID50),以及感染细胞的CPE等指标,以期揭示ERK通路在EV71复制的作用.结果表明,EV71的复制可引起细胞ERK通路的活化;而用MEK1/2特异性的抑制剂U0126预先抑制ERK通路的活化,可显著地降低受染细胞上清液中的病毒的感染滴度(以TCID50表示)、受染细胞中EV71VP1蛋白水平、受染细胞中EV71核酸水平,以及受染细胞的细胞病变效应(cytopathic effect,CPE).提示ERK信号通路的活化对EV71的复制具有重要的作用.本研究为进一步阐明EV71在宿主细胞内的复制机制、寻找新型抗病毒靶标等研究奠定了良好的基础.     

Differential interferon pathway gene expression patterns in Rhabdomyosarcoma cells during Enterovirus 71 or Coxsackievirus A16 infection

Exposure of cells to type I interferon (IFN) induces an antiviral state that prevents viral infection, but viruses can utilize multiple tactics to antagonize the host immune system. Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) are two major pathogens that cause hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), which is prevalent among children. We found that both EV71 and CA16 have different reactions to type I IFN pretreatment and induction patterns of type I IFN on Rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells. Further, a human-α and β IFN PCR array was employed to analyze the expressions of 84 genes related to the type I IFN pathway. We found significant up-regulation of multiple genes in the presence of type I IFN and differential regulation patterns during EV71 or CA16 infection in RD cells. For instance, EV71 infection repressed the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression, whereas CA16 infection normally triggers the JAK-STAT pathway, leading to the expression of ISGs. Taken together, this study provides a comprehensive view of the differential impacts of EV71 and CA16 infection on 84 genes in the IFN pathway, shedding light on the different resistances of these viruses to type I IFN treatment and cytotoxic effects in RD cells.     

siRNA Targeting the 2Apro Genomic Region Prevents Enterovirus 71 Replication In Vitro

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the most important etiological agent of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) in young children, which is associated with severe neurological complications and has caused significant mortalities in recent HFMD outbreaks in Asia. However, there is no effective antiviral therapy against EV71. In this study, RNA interference (RNAi) was used as an antiviral strategy to inhibit EV71 replication. Three small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting the 2A^pro region of the EV71 genome were designed and synthesized. All the siRNAs were transfected individually into rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells, which were then infected with strain EV71-2006-52-9. The cytopathic effects (CPEs) in the infected RD cells, cell viability, viral titer, and viral RNA and protein expression were examined to evaluate the specific viral inhibition by the siRNAs. The results of cytopathogenicity and MTT tests indicated that the RD cells transfected with the three siRNAs showed slight CPEs and significantly high viability. The 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID₅₀) values demonstrated that the viral titer of the groups treated with three siRNAs were lower than those of the control groups. qRT–PCR and western blotting revealed that the levels of viral RNA and protein in the RD cells treated with the three siRNAs were lower than those in the controls. When RD cells transfected with siRNAs were also infected with strain EV71-2008-43-16, the expression of the VP1 protein was significantly inhibited. The levels of interferon α (IFN-α) and IFN-β did not differ significantly in any group. These results suggest that siRNAs targeting the 2A^pro region of the EV71 genome exerted antiviral effects in vitro.     

Antiviral effects of two Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids against enterovirus 71 infection

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a major causative agent for hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD), and fatal neurological and systemic complications in children. However, there is currently no clinical approved antiviral drug available for the prevention and treatment of the viral infection. Here, we evaluated the antiviral activities of two Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs), Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3-one,15;26-dihydroxy (GLTA) and Ganoderic acid Y (GLTB), against EV71 infection. The results showed that the two natural compounds display significant anti-EV71 activities without cytotoxicity in human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells as evaluated by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) cell proliferation assay. The mechanisms by which the two compounds affect EV71 infection were further elucidated by three action modes using Ribavirin, a common antiviral drug, as a positive control. The results suggested that GLTA and GLTB prevent EV71 infection through interacting with the viral particle to block the adsorption of virus to the cells. In addition, the interactions between EV71 virion and the compounds were predicated by computer molecular docking, which illustrated that GLTA and GLTB may bind to the viral capsid protein at a hydrophobic pocket (F site), and thus may block uncoating of EV71. Moreover, we demonstrated that GLTA and GLTB significantly inhibit the replication of the viral RNA (vRNA) of EV71 replication through blocking EV71 uncoating. Thus, GLTA and GLTB may represent two potential therapeutic agents to control and treat EV71 infection.     

Human SCARB2-dependent infection by coxsackievirus A7, A14, and A16 and enterovirus 71

Human enterovirus species A (HEV-A) consists of at least 16 members of different serotypes that are known to be the causative agents of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), herpangina, and other diseases, such as respiratory disease and polio-like flaccid paralysis. Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) are the major causative agents of HFMD. CVA5, CVA6, CVA10, and CVA12 mainly cause herpangina or are occasionally involved with sporadic cases of HFMD. We have previously shown that human scavenger receptor class B, member 2 (SCARB2) is a cellular receptor for EV71 and CVA16. Using a large number of clinical isolates of HEV-A, we explored whether all clinical isolates of EV71 and other serotypes of HEV-A infected cells via SCARB2. We tested this possibility by infecting L-SCARB2 cells, which are L929 cells expressing human SCARB2, by infecting human RD cells that had been treated with small interfering RNAs for SCARB2 and by directly binding the viruses to a soluble SCARB2 protein. We showed that all 162 clinical isolates of EV71 propagated in L-SCARB2 cells, suggesting that SCARB2 is the critical receptor common to all EV71 strains. In addition, CVA7, CVA14, and CVA16, which are most closely related to each other, also utilized SCARB2 for infection. EV71, CVA14, and CVA16 are highly associated with HFMD, and EV71 and CVA7 are occasionally associated with neurological diseases, suggesting that SCARB2 plays important roles in the development of these diseases. In contrast, another group of viruses, such as CVA2, CVA3, CVA4, CVA5, CVA6, CVA8, CVA10, and CVA12, which are relatively distant from the EV71 group, is associated mainly with herpangina. None of these clinical isolates infected via the SCARB2-dependent pathway. HEV-A viruses can be divided into at least two groups depending on the use of SCARB2, and the receptor usage plays an important role in developing the specific diseases for each group.     

MA104 Cell line presents characteristics suitable for enterovirus A71 isolation and proliferation

Enterovirus A71 (EV‐A71), one of the most important causative agents of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) in children, can lead to severe clinical outcomes, even death. However, the infection spectrum of EV‐A71 in different cell lines remains unknown. Therefore, in this study, the biological characteristics of EV‐A71 Subgroup C4 in different cell lines were investigated. To this end, the infectivity of EV‐A71Jinan1002 isolated from children with severe HFMD was assessed in 18 different host cell lines. It was found that the MA104 cell line displayed biological characteristics suitable for EV‐A71 Subgroup C4 strain isolation and proliferation; indeed, it was found that a broad spectrum of cell lines can be infected by EV‐A71Jinan1002. Among the screened cells, four cell lines (HEK293, RD, MA104 and Marc145) produced high 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID₅₀) values calculated in viral proliferations (ranged from 10^7.6 to 10^7.8); the TCID₅₀ being negatively associated with the time to appearance of CPE. Proliferation curves demonstrated that EV‐A71Jinan1002 amplifies more efficiently in MA104, Hep‐2 and RD cells. Remarkably, the virus isolation rate was much higher in MA104 cells than in RD cells. Thus this study, to our knowledge, is for the first to explore the infection spectrum of EV‐A71 subgroup C4 in such a large number of different cell lines. Our data provide useful reference data for facilitating further study of EV‐A71.     

2008～2009年青岛地区手足口病病原学的调查分析

本研究对2008～2009年青岛地区手足口病的病原学进行调查研究。首先对HFMD病例的咽拭子标本直接进行病毒核酸的提取,然后采用多重荧光逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)方法对总肠道病毒(Enterovirus,EV)、肠道病毒71型(Enterovirus Type 71,EV71)和柯萨奇病毒A组16型(Coxsackievirus Group A 16,CVA16)进行检测,对EV阳性而EV71和CVA16均阴性的标本采用半巢式反转录PCR进行肠道病毒VP1基因部分序列的扩增和序列分析以鉴定其血清型别。结果提示2008～2009年青岛地区手足口病的主要病原为EV71和CVA16,无论轻症和重症病例,EV71的比例都大于CVA16。2008年共获得5个(8株)其它血清型,分别是柯萨奇病毒(Cox-sackievirus,CV)的A5、A6、A10、A12及埃可病毒9(Echovirus 9,E9),血清型分布比较分散、均匀。2009年共获得3个其它血清型(13株),分别是CVA9、CVA12及CVB2,CVA12所占比例较大(11/13),分布比较集中。CVA12成为2009年青岛地区HFMD病原中除EV71和CVA16外,新的较为流行的病原。     

Immunological and Biochemical Characterization of Coxsackie Virus A16 Viral Particles

Background

Coxsackie virus A16 (CVA16) infections have become a serious public health problem in the Asia-Pacific region. It manifests most often in childhood exanthema, commonly known as hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD). There are currently no vaccine or effective medical treatments available.

Principal Finding

In this study, we describe the production, purification and characterization of CVA16 virus produced from Vero cells grown on 5 g/L Cytodex 1 microcarrier beads in a five-liter serum-free bioreactor system. The viral titer was found to be >10⁶ the tissue culture''s infectious dose (TCID₅₀) per mL within 7 days post-infection when a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10⁻⁵ was used for initial infection. Two CVA16 virus fractions were separated and detected when the harvested CVA16 viral concentrate was purified by a sucrose gradient zonal ultracentrifugation. The viral particles detected in the 24–28% sucrose fractions had low viral infectivity and RNA content. The viral particles obtained from 35–38% sucrose fractions were found to have high viral infectivity and RNA content, and composed of four viral proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4), as shown by SDS-PAGE analyses. These two virus fractions were formalin-inactivated and only the infectious particle fraction was found to be capable of inducing CVA16-specific neutralizing antibody responses in both mouse and rabbit immunogenicity studies. But these antisera failed to neutralize enterovirus 71. In addition, rabbit antisera did not react with any peptides derived from CVA16 capsid proteins. Mouse antisera recognized a single linear immunodominant epitope of VP3 corresponding to residues 176–190.

Conclusion

These results provide important information for cell-based CVA16 vaccine development. To eliminate HFMD, a bivalent EV71/CVA16 vaccine formulation is necessary.     

Enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16 3C proteases: binding to rupintrivir and their substrates and anti-hand, foot, and mouth disease virus drug design

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) are the major causative agents of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), which is prevalent in Asia. Thus far, there are no prophylactic or therapeutic measures against HFMD. The 3C proteases from EV71 and CVA16 play important roles in viral replication and are therefore ideal drug targets. By using biochemical, mutational, and structural approaches, we broadly characterized both proteases. A series of high-resolution structures of the free or substrate-bound enzymes were solved. These structures, together with our cleavage specificity assay, well explain the marked substrate preferences of both proteases for particular P4, P1, and P1' residue types, as well as the relative malleability of the P2 amino acid. More importantly, the complex structures of EV71 and CVA16 3Cs with rupintrivir, a specific human rhinovirus (HRV) 3C protease inhibitor, were solved. These structures reveal a half-closed S2 subsite and a size-reduced S1' subsite that limit the access of the P1' group of rupintrivir to both enzymes, explaining the reported low inhibition activity of the compound toward EV71 and CVA16. In conclusion, the detailed characterization of both proteases in this study could direct us to a proposal for rational design of EV71/CVA16 3C inhibitors.     

GeXP多重基因表达遗传分析系统在手足口病病原分型检测中的应用

利用GeXP多重基因表达遗传分析系统,建立一种多重逆转录-聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)方法,同时检测引起手足口病的9种常见的人肠道病毒—人肠道病毒71型(HEV71)、柯萨奇病毒A组(CVA)16、4、5、9、10型和柯萨奇病毒B组(CVB)1、3、5型。优化多重反应体系中针对5’UTR区的肠道病毒通用引物和11对针对9种血清型人肠道病毒VP1区的特异性引物的浓度比例,分别以病毒细胞培养物和阳性粪便标本来验证多重反应体系的特异性,以TCID50定量的细胞培养物和克隆质粒体外转录的RNA梯度稀释液来检测多重检测体系的灵敏度。结果表明,优化后的多重检测体系,可扩增出人肠道病毒共有的保守片段的和型特异性片段,HEV71和CVA16细胞培养物的检测下限为100.5TCID50/μL,并可在103copies/μL水平同时、特异地检测出9种病毒RNA。该方法灵敏度高、特异性强,可快速对大量临床样本进行高通量检测,用于手足口病的分子流行病学调查。