口蹄疫病毒VP1基因在番茄中的表达及转基因番茄对豚鼠诱导免疫保护

构建克隆有O型口蹄疫病毒China99株VP1基因的植物双元表达载体pBin438/VP1。通过农杆菌介导法转化番茄子叶,经卡那霉素抗性筛选,获得60株抗性植株。对抗性植株分别做PCR、RT-PCR检测目的基因的整合与转录,ELISA筛选约40%的卡那抗性植株阳性,分别提取两株ELISA和Western blot检测阳性的转基因番茄叶片蛋白与弗氏佐剂乳化,于0、15、30d经肌肉途径免疫豚鼠,第三次免疫后28d用100ID50的同源强毒攻击,根据豚鼠抗体水平的消长动态和免疫豚鼠抗强毒攻击的保护率进行转基因植物疫苗免疫原性的评估。结果表明,双元表达载体pBin438/VP1构建正确,PCR、RT-PCR结果证实口蹄疫病毒VP1基因已整合到番茄基因组并在转录水平表达,ELISA和Western blot检测重组蛋白能够与FMDV阳性血清反应。转基因番茄第三次免疫豚鼠后21d血清效价最高可达1∶64,攻毒后两组免疫豚鼠保护率分别达80%和40%,证明转基因番茄表达的VP1蛋白具有良好的免疫原性。     

DNA vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease via electroporation: study of molecular approaches for enhancing VP1 antigenicity

BACKGROUND: Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) affects susceptible livestock animals and causes disastrous economic impact. Immunization with plasmid expressing VP1 that contains the major antigenic epitope(s) of FMDV as cytoplasmic protein (cVP1) failed to elicit full protection against FMDV challenge. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, mice were immunized via electroporation with four cDNA expression vectors that were constructed to express VP1 of FMDV, as cytoplasmic (cVP1), secreted (sVP1), membrane-anchored (mVP1) or capsid precursor protein (P1), respectively, to evaluate whether expression of VP1 in specific subcellular compartment(s) would result in better immune responses. RESULTS: Electroporation enhanced immune responses to vectors expressing cVP1 or P1 and expedited the immune responses to vectors expressing sVP1 or mVP1. Immunization of mice via electroporation with mVP1 cDNA was better than sVP1 or cVP1 cDNA in eliciting neutralizing antibodies and viral clearance protection. Vaccination with P1 cDNA, nonetheless, yielded the best immune responses and protection among all four cDNAs that we tested. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the antigenicity of a VP1 DNA vaccine can be significantly enhanced by altering the cellular localization of the VP1 antigen. Electroporation is a useful tool for enhancing the immune responses of vectors expressing VP1 or P1. By mimicking FMDV more closely than that of transgenic VP1 and eliciting immune responses favorably toward Th2, transgenic P1 may induce more neutralizing antibodies and better protection against FMDV challenge.     

A Novel Mucosal Vaccine Against Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Induces Protection in Mice and Swine

Epitopes of a foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) capsid protein VP1 complex and a chimera of 6×His-tagged cholera toxin B subunit (hCTB) were expressed in Hansenula polymorpha and used together as a mucosal vaccine. Antibody and cytokine responses to VP1–hCTB vaccine and protection against FMDV were evaluated by ELISA and a virus challenge test in mice, respectively. VP1–hCTB directly enhanced the expression of interleukin-5 (IL-5) both in serum and supernatants of cultured spleen cells. After challenging suckling mice with 10⁵ FMDV (=50% lethal dosage per mouse) a greater protection was seen after intraperitoneal and intranasal vaccinations than after oral vaccination. In swine immunized with VP1–hCTB, immune responses were achieved after three administrations, and the vaccine protected swine (80%) when challenged with 10^6.5 FMDV (=50% infectious dosage per swine). These results demonstrated the possibility of using CTB as a mucosal adjuvant to elicit protective immune responses against FMDV. Houhui Song, Zhiliang Wang and Dongxia Zheng contributed equally to this work.     

Induction of a protective antibody response to FMDV in mice following oral immunization with transgenic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stylosanthes</Emphasis> spp. as a feedstuff additive

The expression of antigens in transgenic plants has increasingly been used as an alternative to the classical methodologies for the development of experimental vaccines, and it remains one of the real challenges in this field to use transgenic plant-based vaccines effectively as feedstuff additives. We report herein the development of a new oral immunization system for foot and mouth disease with the structural protein VP1 of the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) produced in transgenic Stylosanthes guianensis cv. Reyan II. The transgenic plantlets were identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Southern blotting, and northern blotting; and the production of VP1 protein in transgenic plants was confirmed and quantified by western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Six transformed lines were obtained, and the level of the expressed protein was 0.1–0.5% total soluble protein (TSP). Mice that were orally immunized using studded feedstuff mixed with desiccated powder of the transgenic plants developed a virus-specific immune response to the structural VP1 and intact FMDV particles. To our knowledge, this is the first report of transgenic plants expressing the antigen protein of FMDV as feedstuff additives that has demonstrated the induction of a protective systemic antibody response in animals. These results support the feasibility of producing edible vaccines from transgenic forage plants, and provide proof of the possibility of using plant-based vaccines as feedstuff additives.     

Foot and mouth disease virus polyepitope protein produced in bacteria and plants induces protective immunity in guinea pigs

The goal of this project was to develop an alternative foot and mouth disease (FMD) vaccine candidate based on a recombinant protein consisting of efficient viral epitopes. A recombinant gene was designed that encodes B-cell epitopes of proteins VP1 and VP4 and T-cell epitopes of proteins 2C and 3D. The polyepitope protein (H-PE) was produced in E. coli bacteria or in N. benthamiana plants using a phytovirus expression system. The methods of extraction and purification of H-PE proteins from bacteria and plants were developed. Immunization of guinea pigs with the purified H-PE proteins induced an efficient immune response against foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype O/Taiwan/99 and protection against the disease. The polyepitope protein H-PE can be used as a basis for developing a new recombinant vaccine against FMD.     

A large-scale evaluation of peptide vaccines against foot-and-mouth disease: lack of solid protection in cattle and isolation of escape mutants.

A large-scale vaccination experiment involving a total of 138 cattle was carried out to evaluate the potential of synthetic peptides as vaccines against foot-and-mouth disease. Four types of peptides representing sequences of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) C3 Argentina 85 were tested: A, which includes the G-H loop of capsid protein VP1 (site A); AT, in which a T-cell epitope has been added to site A; AC, composed of site A and the carboxy-terminal region of VP1 (site C); and ACT, in which the three previous capsid motifs are colinearly represented. Induction of neutralizing antibodies, lymphoproliferation in response to viral antigens, and protection against challenge with homologous infectious virus were examined. None of the tested peptides, at several doses and vaccination schedules, afforded protection above 40%. Protection showed limited correlation with serum neutralization activity and lymphoproliferation in response to whole virus. In 12 of 29 lesions from vaccinated cattle that were challenged with homologous virus, mutant FMDVs with amino acid substitutions at antigenic site A were identified. This finding suggests the rapid generation and selection of FMDV antigenic variants in vivo. In contrast with previous studies, this large-scale vaccination experiment with an important FMDV host reveals considerable difficulties for vaccines based on synthetic peptides to achieve the required levels of efficacy. Possible modifications of the vaccine formulations to increase protective activity are discussed.     

Synthesis, cloning, and expression of artificial genes, coding antigenic determinants of the foot-and-mouth virus substrain A22]

Chemical-enzymatic synthesis and cloning in Escherichia coli of double-stranded DNAs, coding for simple and complex antigenic determinants of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) strain A22, have been carried out. The simple antigenic determinants are a part of the viral coat protein VP1 (amino acid sequence 131-152 or 131-160) whereas the complex antigenic determinants comprise additionally the amino acid sequence 200-213 of VP1 linked to N-terminus of simple antigenic determinants through a tetrapeptide spacer Pro-Pro-Ser-Pro. Recombinant DNAs containing genes for antigenic determinants of FMDV fused with C-terminus of gene for human tumor necrosis factor (hrTNF) have been constructed. Expression of the hybrid genes and properties of the proteins coded were studied. All recombinant proteins were shown to interact specifically with polyclonal antibodies both against hrTNF and FMDV strain A22. The recombinant proteins produced by bacteria are perspective for study as a vaccine against FMDV.     

Identification of short hairpin RNA targeting foot-and-mouth disease virus with transgenic bovine fetal epithelium cells

Background

Although it is known that RNA interference (RNAi) targeting viral genes protects experimental animals, such as mice, from the challenge of Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), it has not been previously investigated whether shRNAs targeting FMDV in transgenic dairy cattle or primary transgenic bovine epithelium cells will confer resistance against FMDV challenge.

Principal Finding

Here we constructed three recombinant lentiviral vectors containing shRNA against VP2 (RNAi-VP2), VP3 (RNAi-VP3), or VP4 (RNAi-VP4) of FMDV, and found that all of them strongly suppressed the transient expression of a FLAG-tagged viral gene fusion protein in 293T cells. In BHK-21 cells, RNAi-VP4 was found to be more potent in inhibition of viral replication than the others with over 98% inhibition of viral replication. Therefore, recombinant lentiviral vector RNAi-VP4 was transfected into bovine fetal fibroblast cells to generate transgenic nuclear donor cells. With subsequent somatic cell cloning, we generated forty transgenic blastocysts, and then transferred them to 20 synchronized recipient cows. Three transgenic bovine fetuses were obtained after pregnant period of 4 months, and integration into chromosome in cloned fetuses was confirmed by Southern hybridization. The primary tongue epithelium cells of transgenic fetuses were isolated and inoculated with 100 TCID₅₀ of FMDV, and it was observed that shRNA significantly suppressed viral RNA synthesis and inhibited over 91% of viral replication after inoculation of FMDV for 48 h.

Conclusion

RNAi-VP4 targeting viral VP4 gene appears to prevent primary epithelium cells of transgenic bovine fetus from FMDV infection, and it could be a candidate shRNA used for cultivation of transgenic cattle against FMDV.     

Foot-and-mouth disease virus structural protein VP3 degrades Janus kinase 1 to inhibit IFN-γ signal transduction pathways

Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals that is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). To replicate efficiently in vivo, FMDV has evolved methods to circumvent host antiviral defense mechanisms, including those induced by interferons (IFNs). Previous research has focused on the effect of FMDV L^pro and 3C^pro on type I IFNs. In this study, FMDV VP3 was found to inhibit type II IFN signaling pathways. The overexpression of FMDV VP3 inhibited the IFN-γ-triggered phosphorylation of STAT1 at Tyr701 and the subsequent expression of downstream genes. Mechanistically, FMDV VP3 interacted with JAK1/2 and inhibited the tyrosine phosphorylation, dimerization and nuclear accumulation of STAT1. FMDV VP3 also disrupted the assembly of the JAK1 complex and degraded JAK1 but not JAK2 via a lysosomal pathway. Taken together, the results reveal a novel mechanism used by which FMDV VP3 counteracts the type II IFN signaling pathways.     

Comparative studies of the capsid precursor polypeptide P1 and the capsid protein VP1 cDNA vectors for DNA vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease virus

BACKGROUND: Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes a severe livestock disease, and the virus is an interesting target for virology and vaccine studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Here we evaluated comparatively three different viral antigen-encoding DNA sequences, delivered via two physical means (i.e., gene gun delivery into skin and electroporation delivery into muscle), for naked DNA-mediated vaccination in a mouse system. RESULTS: Both methods gave similar results, demonstrating commonality of the observed DNA vaccine effects. Immunization with a cDNA vector expressing the major viral antigen (VP1) alone routinely failed to induce the production of anti-VP1 or neutralizing antibodies in test mice. As a second approach, the plasmid L-VP1 that produces a transgenic membrane-anchored VP1 protein elicited a strong antibody response, but all test mice failed in the FMDV challenge experiment. In contrast, for mice immunized with the viral capsid precursor protein (P1) cDNA expression vector, both neutralizing antibodies and 80-100% protection in test mice were detected. CONCLUSIONS: This strategy of using the whole capsid precursor protein P1 cDNA for vaccination, intentionally without the use of virus-specific protease or other encoding genes for safety reasons, may thus be employed as a relevant experimental system for induction or upgrading of effective neutralizing antibody response, and as a convenient surrogate test system for DNA vaccination studies of FMDV and presumably other viral diseases.     

Nucleotide sequence and corresponding amino acid sequence of the gene for the major antigen of foot and mouth disease virus

A segment of 1160 nucleotides of the FMDV genome has been sequenced using three overlapping fragments of cloned cDNA from FMDV strain O1K. This sequence contains the coding sequence for the viral capsid protein VP1 as shown by its homology to known and newly determined amino acid sequences from this man antigenic polypeptide of the FMDV virion. The structural gene for VP1 comprises 639 nucleotides which specify a sequence of 213 amino acids for the VP1 protein. The coding sequence is not flanked by start and stop codons which is consistent with the mode of biosynthesis of VP1 by post-translational processing of a polyprotein precursor.     

The expression of classical swine fever virus structural protein E2 gene in tobacco chloroplasts for applying chloroplasts as bioreactors

It has been reported that genes encoding antigens of bacterial and viral pathogens can be expressed in plants and are shown to induce protection antibodies. The structural protein E2 of classical swine fever virus (CSFV), which has been shown to carry critical epitopes, has been expressed in different systems. Here, we report the expression of CFSV E2 gene in tobacco chloroplasts. Mice immunized with leaf extracts elicited specific antibodies. This indicated that the expressed E2 proteins had a certain degree of immunogenicity. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing induction of protective antibody in response to classical swine fever virus (CSFV) by immunization with antigen protein E2 expressed in tobacco chloroplasts, which will open a new way to protection from CSFV by plant chloroplasts as bioreactors.     

Development of recombinant vaccines against bluetongue

Bluetongue virus is the aetiological agent of bluetongue, a disease of domestic and wild ruminants. Twenty-four serotypes are recognized. Novel subunit vaccines, that complement existing modified live polyvalent vaccines, are being developed. Serotype-specific viral neutralizing antibodies that are able to protect sheep against virulent homologous virus challenge can be induced by immunizing with the BTV outer capsid protein VP2 purified from virions or with VP2 expressed by baculovirus recombinants. Presentation of VP2 on virus-like particles, which assemble upon co-expression of the four major structural viral proteins (VP2, VP5, VP3 and VP7), improves the protective effect of VP2. Sheep immunized with core-like particles, comprised of VP3 and VP7, developed only limited clinical signs after virulent virus challenge, demonstrating that not only the outer capsid proteins, but also the core proteins are involved in protection against bluetongue.     

A recombinant, arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motif from foot-and-mouth disease virus binds mammalian cells through vitronectin and, to a lower extent, fibronectin receptors

The cell-binding abilities of a recombinant, RGD-containing peptide from foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) have been characterized in HeLa and BHK cells. This peptide represents the aa sequence of the solvent-exposed G-H loop of protein VP1 which is involved in cell recognition and infection. The efficiency of the viral motif in promoting cell attachment and spreading is comparable to that shown by fibronectin or vitronectin. Cell binding is inhibited by a monoclonal antibody directed against a viral, RGD-involving B-cell epitope and also by sera against vitronectin (_Vβ₃/β₅) and fibronectin (₅β₁) receptors. In addition, a synthetic RGD peptide, which is a ligand for both integrins, prevents the cell binding mediated by the FMDV domain. These data demonstrate that the FMDV RGD motif is a potent ligand for cell-receptor integrins and sufficient to promote cell attachment to susceptible cells mainly through the vitronectin receptor.     

Evidence that Equine rhinitis A virus VP1 is a target of neutralizing antibodies and participates directly in receptor binding

Equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV) is a respiratory pathogen of horses and is classified as an Aphthovirus, the only non-Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) member of this genus. In FMDV, virion protein 1 (VP1) is a major target of protective antibodies and is responsible for viral attachment to permissive cells via an RGD motif located in a distal surface loop. Although both viruses share considerable sequence identity, ERAV VP1 does not contain an RGD motif. To investigate antibody and receptor-binding properties of ERAV VP1, we have expressed full-length ERAV VP1 in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein (GST-VP1). GST-VP1 reacted specifically with antibodies present in serum from a rabbit immunized with purified ERAV virions and also in convalescent-phase sera from horses experimentally infected with ERAV. An antiserum raised in rabbits to GST-VP1 reacted strongly with viral VP1 and effectively neutralized ERAV infection in vitro. Using a flow cytometry-based binding assay, we found that GST-VP1, but not other GST fusion proteins, bound to cell surface receptors. This binding was reduced in a dose-dependent manner by the addition of purified ERAV virions, demonstrating the specificity of this interaction. A separate cell-binding assay also implicated GST-VP1 in receptor binding. Importantly, anti-GST-VP1 antibodies inhibited the binding of ERAV virions to Vero cells, suggesting that these antibodies exert their neutralizing effect by blocking viral attachment. Thus ERAV VP1, like its counterpart in FMDV, appears to be both a target of protective antibodies and involved directly in receptor binding. This study reveals the potential of recombinant VP1 molecules to serve as vaccines and diagnostic reagents for the control of ERAV infections.     

New Vaccine Design Based on Defective Genomes That Combines Features of Attenuated and Inactivated Vaccines

Background

New vaccine designs are needed to control diseases associated with antigenically variable RNA viruses. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of livestock that inflicts severe economic losses. Although the current whole-virus chemically inactivated vaccine has proven effective, it has led to new outbreaks of FMD because of incomplete inactivation of the virus or the escape of infectious virus from vaccine production premises. We have previously shown that serial passages of FMD virus (FMDV) C-S8c1 at high multiplicity of infection in cell culture resulted in virus populations consisting of defective genomes that are infectious by complementation (termed C-S8p260).

Principal Finding

Here we evaluate the immunogenicity of C-S8p260, first in a mouse model system to establish a proof of principle, and second, in swine, the natural host of FMDV C-S8c1. Mice were completely protected against a lethal challenge with FMDV C-S8c1, after vaccination with a single dose of C-S8p260. Pigs immunized with different C-S8p260 doses and challenged with FMDV C-S8c1 either did not develop any clinical signs or showed delayed and mild disease symptoms. C-S8p260 induced high titers of both FMDV-specific, neutralizing antibodies and activated FMDV-specific T cells in swine, that correlated with solid protection against FMDV.

Conclusions

The defective virus-based vaccine did not produce detectable levels of transmissible FMDV. Therefore, a segmented, replication-competent form of a virus, such as FMDV C-S8p260, can provide the basis of a new generation of attenuated antiviral vaccines with two safety barriers. The design can be extended to any viral pathogen that encodes trans-acting gene products, allowing complementation between replication-competent, defective forms.     

Synthetic peptides as functional mimics of a viral discontinuous antigenic site.

Functional reproduction of discontinuous antigenic site D of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) has been achieved by means of synthetic peptide constructions that integrate into a single molecule each of the three protein loops that define the antigenic site. The site D mimics are designed on the basis of the X-ray structure of FMDV type C-S8c1 with the aid of molecular dynamics, so that the five residues assumed to be involved in antigenic recognition are located on the same face of the molecule, exposed to solvent and defining a set of native-like distances and angles. The designed site D mimics are disulphide-linked heterodimers that consist of a larger unit containing VP2(71-84), followed by a polyproline module and by VP3(52-62), and a smaller unit corresponding to VP1(188-194). Guinea pig antisera to the peptides recognize the viral particle and compete with site D-specific monoclonal antibodies, while inoculation with a simple (non-covalently bound) admixture of the three VP1-VP3 sequences yields no detectable virus-specific serum conversion. Similar results have been reproduced in two cattle. Antisera to the peptides are also moderately neutralizing of FMDV in cell culture and partially protective of guinea pigs against challenge with the virus. These results demonstrate functional mimicry of the discontinuous site D by the peptides, which are therefore obvious candidates for a multicomponent peptide-based vaccine against FMDV.     

High-yield production of the VP1 structural protein epitope from serotype O foot-and-mouth disease virus in Escherichia coli

For effective control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), the development of rapid diagnostic systems and vaccines are required against its etiological agent, FMD virus (FMDV). To accomplish this, efficient large-scale expression of the FMDV VP1 protein, with high solubility, needs to be optimized. We attempted to produce high levels of a serotype O FMDV VP1 epitope in Escherichia coli. We identified the subtype-independent serotype O FMDV VP1 epitope sequence and used it to construct a glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein. For efficient production of the FMDV VP1 epitope fused to GST (VP1e–GST), four E. coli strains and three temperatures were examined. The conditions yielding the greatest level of VP1e–GST with highest solubility were achieved with E. coli BL21(DE3) at 25 °C. For high-level production, fed-batch cultures were conducted in 5-l bioreactors. When cells were induced at a high density and complex feeding solutions were supplied, approximately 11 g of VP1e–GST was obtained from a 2.9-l culture. Following purification, the VP1 epitope was used to immunize rabbits, and we confirmed that it induced an immune response.     

Purification and immunogenicity of fusion VP1 protein of foot and mouth disease virus

A procedure has been developed to purify foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) VP1 surface antigens from recombinant Escherichia coli. The VP1 antigens are expressed as fusion proteins derived from the E. coli Trp operon and VP1 surface protein of FMDV. The procedure is capable of recovering greater than 96% of the desired product at a purity of greater than 96%. The resulting antigens induce significant levels of virus-neutralizing antibody in guinea pigs and cattle as determined by a mouse protection assay [Skinner, H.H. (1952) Proc. Int. Vet. Congr., 15th 1, 195]. E. coli contaminants have a deleterious effect on ion-exchange chromatography as well as immunogenicity of the expressed fusion VP1 antigens. The method presented removes significant E. coli contaminants, yielding fusion VP1 proteins which are immunogenically potent. In particular, virus neutralization titers at 100-micrograms dosage of the fusion VP1 proteins of the O1 and A24 serotypes are similar to that induced by the natural VP1 proteins isolated from FMD virions.