基于生态系统服务的澧水流域生态补偿标准研究

在对澧水流域2002—2017年间生态系统服务和生态供需状况进行研究的基础上, 进行流域生态补偿空间选择, 并测算流域内各县(市、区)的生态补偿标准。结果表明: (1)研究期间, 澧水流域生态系统服务价值从2002年的437.17×108 元减至2017年的435.69×108 元。(2)2017年澧水流域生态供需不平衡, 人均生态赤字为-2.1497 hm2。(3)引入生态补偿优先级确定澧水流域生态补偿空间, 位于澧水上游和中游的桑植县、永定区、武陵源区、慈利县、石门县等5个县(区)属于生态输出型; 澧水下游的临澧县、澧县、津市市等3个县(市)为生态消费型。(4)根据研究区生态供需状况, 引入修正系数对各县(市、区)的生态补偿标准进行测算可知, 澧县需要支付22.91×108 元; 其次是石门县和临澧县, 分别为9.40×108 元和9.22×108 元。研究结果对于加快构建区域生态补偿机制具有重要意义, 并对国内其他区域生态补偿工作起到借鉴作用。     

生态补偿区域的空间选择研究——以青海省国家重点生态功能区转移支付为例

生态补偿区域的空间选择研究是生态补偿机制建立的基础,目前国内缺少这方面的研究。合理的生态补偿区域空间选择方法可以为生态补偿优先地区的选择提供较为可靠的定量化依据。综合考虑青海省各市县的生态系统服务价值和经济发展水平,在使用Arc GIS工具的基础上,运用"生态效益比瞄准"方法和"生态补偿优先级(Eco-compensation Priority Sequence,ECPS)"方法,分别对青海省各市县生态补偿优先等级进行了研究。研究结果表明:"生态效益比瞄准"方法适用于森林、草原等基于要素的生态补偿机制的空间选择,而"生态补偿优先级"方法更适合区域性的生态补偿的空间选择。根据"生态补偿优先级"方法可以得出青海省国家重点生态功能区转移支付优先补偿区主要集中在青海省南部,次级补偿区主要位于青海省中部,潜在补偿区主要在青海省东北部。与青海省重点生态功能区转移支付资金分配比较,海西州内的很多市县没有得到相应的补偿,原有的资金分配方式更多的考虑民生因素而忽略了环境因素。在生态补偿区域的空间选择中,要结合生态综合补偿,提出合理的生态补偿绩效考核体系,在保护环境的基础上改善民生。     

黑河上游山区土壤非饱和导水率测定及其估算——以排露沟流域为例

黑河上游山区土壤水分表现为非饱和特征,准确估算该区域表层土壤非饱和导水率(K10)可提高山区生态水文模型的可靠性.本研究野外测定了黑河上游排露沟流域的K10,并利用土壤传递函数(PTFs)以土壤机械组成、容重及土壤平均粒径作为分析因子进行模拟估算,结果表明:排露沟流域森林、草地、退耕裸地的K10均值分别为(0.21±0...     

岷江流域生态安全格局评价与优化——基于最小累积阻力模型和重力模型

生态安全格局评价是维护生物多样性、改善环境质量的重要途径，对维持区域持续发展具有重要意义。以岷江流域为研究区，综合运用土地利用和归一化植被指数（NDVI）等数据，基于生态系统服务对岷江流域进行生态重要性分析，将生态极重要区识别为生态源地，采用最小累积阻力（MCR）模型中成本路径法提取潜在廊道，结合重力模型提取重要廊道和重要节点，从而实现对研究区生态安全格局的刻画，进而对岷江流域生态安全格局评价并提出优化建议。研究结果表明：（1）岷江流域安全等级总体较好，较高生态安全和高生态安全的面积占研究区面积的55.02%。（2）从空间上看，研究区内重要生态源地面积为818.32km²，破碎化严重，集中分布在岷江流域上游林地区；廊道共190条，总长度为19633.96km，其中重要廊道41条，呈半环状分布于上游和下游段；生态节点共117个，集中分布在上游段南部-西南部。（3）参考生态阻力和廊道节点空间分布特征，划分岷江流域"四区两带"生态安全格局并提出分区管控措施和相关建议。以期研究结果和调控路径可对完善岷江流域生态安全格局、保护生物多样性和增强水土保持有一定的借鉴意义。     

河西走廊生态经济系统协调度评价及其空间演化

基于1985、1995、2000、2011年的Landsat TM影像解译数据,以河西走廊20个县(市、区)为基本研究单元,运用生态系统服务价值估算法,依据生态系统服务价值指数(ESV)和生态经济协调度指数(EEH),对河西走廊1985—2011年生态经济系统协调度进行评价.结果表明: 研究期间,研究区土地类型结构发生了较大变化,林草地面积减少幅度较大,建设用地和耕地面积增加较快.ESV整体呈下降趋势,研究区东、中部石羊河流域和黑河流域中游ESV变化幅度较大,经济开发方式在本时段发生过显著变化,研究区西部疏勒河流域ESV变化不大.2000年后,研究区经济增长速度明显加快,资源型城市和区域性中心城市是经济增长的热点区,整体上沿走廊中心向两侧递减.研究区生态经济关系整体上经历了“初步恶化-进一步恶化-低度协调”的演变过程,研究区东、中部的石羊河流域和黑河流域中游EEH有较大幅度的变化,生态经济经历了“冲突-进一步冲突-小幅度缓和”的过程,西部疏勒河流域EEH变化幅度较小,石羊河流域和黑河流域高强度的开发模式以及随后的流域综合治理对区域生态经济协调性产生了较大影响.
     

黑河流域中游地区净初级生产力的人类占用

基于Miami模型,对黑河流域中游净初级生产力的人类占用（HANPP）及其与生态系统多样性的关系进行了研究,并对HANPP与生态足迹（EF）指标在可持续发展评估方面的价值进行了比较.结果表明：HANPP的提高将降低生态系统多样性,研究区现状年的平均HANPP率为38.61%,肃州区和甘州区的HANPP已超过生态系统潜在生产能力的极限;结合气候变化和社会经济发展状况进行分析,未来40年黑河流域中游生态系统将面临更大压力.与生态足迹（EF）相比,HANPP更适于从生态系统功能变化角度评估区域发展的可持续性.     

额济纳天然绿洲景观演化驱动因子分析

额济纳天然绿洲位于我国西北干旱内陆河流域黑河流域下游 ,近年来 ,随着黑河中、上游地区下泄地表径流量的减少 ,额济纳天然绿洲景观退化严重。基于研究区近十几年来的景观演化总体特征 ,分别从气候因素、水文因素、人类干扰因素等几个主要的景观变化驱动因子入手 ,探讨其演化机制、揭示其演化规律。研究结果表明 :黑河流域中、上游下泄地表径流量的锐减而导致研究区地下水水位下降、地下水矿化度升高以及水质恶化是额济纳天然绿洲景观发生退化的根本原因 ,绿洲人类活动强度的增加、绿洲关键区域的超载和过牧以及蒸发度指数的升高、湿润系数的下降均加剧了研究区景观退化的程度。     

黑河流域生态系统服务空间协同与权衡变化

黑河流域是西北地区重要的生态功能区,流域内生态系统服务变化对当地社会经济发展和流域生态安全具有重要影响,其社会-生态-环境问题一直受到高度关注,因此开展黑河流域生态系统服务评估及协同/权衡关系研究对该区域的可持续发展具有重要意义.本文采用基于时间序列的双变量逐像元相关分析,对黑河流域1990-2015年的各项关键生态系...     

赣江上游流域景观生态风险的时空分异——从生产-生活-生态空间的视角

以赣江上游流域为研究对象,利用1995年、2005年、2015年的3期遥感影像,分析1995—2015年赣江上游流域的土地利用演变特征;基于景观扰动指数与景观脆弱指数构建土地利用生态风险模型;采用半变异分析、自相关分析等方法,研究了赣江上游流域土地利用风险时空变化与驱动力。结果表明:赣江上游流域城乡生活空间面积显著增加,从三生空间看,农业生产空间面积显著减少,土地利用类型由生态、生产空间向城乡生活空间转化,土地利用程度提高。1995—2015年期间土地利用生态风险逐渐上升,高-高型聚类多分布于章贡区、南康区、信丰县等附近,低-低型聚类多分布于安远县、全南县等附近,高风险区、较高面积逐渐扩大,低风险区、较低风险区面积逐渐缩小,引起土地利用类型变化的因素主要为总人口、公路里程、城镇化率等人为因素。研究结果可为区域生态安全格局构建、土地利用的优化布局提供借鉴。     

粤北南岭大宝山矿流域山水林田湖草修复阻力与优先级分析

遵循“防源、控流、治汇”理念,以粤北南岭大宝山矿区作为风险源,以所在流域为研究区,分析研究区主要阻力因素,采用最小累积阻力模型建立区域生态阻力面;利用Jenks自然断点法,分析生态修复优先级,提出分区治理重点和对策。研究结果表明：研究区综合阻力系数处于9-32之间,各评价指标的阻力面空间分布格局相似,其阻力值呈现出东南部大,西北部小的空间格局;长期的矿业开采污染了流域生态环境,且距离矿区越近的区域生态修复的优先性越高。将研究区分为4个优先级区,各区修复优先性依次为Ⅰ区 > Ⅱ区 > Ⅲ区 > Ⅳ区。Ⅰ区重点在于治水,提高pH、降低重金属有效态含量和增加地表植被覆盖度。Ⅱ区重点在于河流治理与治土,确保污染减排,增强拦泥库的废水调节。Ⅲ区、Ⅳ区核心在治土,逐步改善土壤条件。研究结果为修复项目在时空尺度上落地和科学治理提供科学依据。     

生态系统服务付费的诊断框架及案例剖析

生态系统服务付费目前已成为生态系统服务研究的热点之一。参考Ostrom的社会-生态系统诊断框架,提取并总结影响生态系统服务付费执行效率的变量,建立了适合区域特点的项目绩效评估体系,并以哥斯达黎加(PSA)项目和中国退耕还林工程为例,探讨了该评估体系在生态系统服务付费效率诊断中的适用性。研究表明,依据该评估体系,未来中国在实施生态系统服务付费项目时应注意以下问题:建立生态系统服务付费的市场机制、实施多样化的付费方式;付费标准应考虑区域特征和供给方特征;建立生态系统服务付费项目的第三方监督和绩效评估机制;加强对生态系统服务的监测。     

Improving the efficiency of conservation policies with the use of surrogates derived from remotely sensed and ancillary data

Conservation policies are emerging in many places around the world, many of which involve payment for ecosystem services (PES) schemes. PES schemes provide economic incentives for forgoing land uses that reduce the provision of ecosystem services. The efficiency of such schemes depends not only on the ecosystem services provided by an area but also on the willingness of local people to forgo their land use activities. Targeting land for enrollment in PES schemes on the basis of the potential provision of ecosystem services and on the willingness to forgo certain economic activities, may therefore improve the efficiency of these schemes. The objective of this study was to develop a targeting approach, based on three surrogates derived from remotely sensed and ancillary data, for identifying land to be enrolled in one of the largest PES schemes in the world: China's Grain-to-Green Program (GTGP). The GTGP encourages farmers to return steep hillside cropland to forest by providing cash, grain and tree seedlings. The three surrogates used in the targeting approach were slope index, cropland probability, and GTGP enrollment probability. Combining these surrogates through Bernoulli trials allows targeting areas under cropland, with low opportunity costs for farmers and with potentially high soil erosion and landslide susceptibility. Results of applying the targeting approach in a case study area (Baoxing County, Sichuan Province, China) show that around half of the land currently enrolled is placed in areas with gentle slopes and tend to be located distant from forest areas. This reduces the potential benefits obtained from the GTGP. Targeting land using the proposed approach may double the benefits obtained from the program under the same budget, thus improving its efficiency. The approach may be applied to the entire GTGP implementation area in China and with proper modifications it may also be applicable to similar PES programs around the world.     

Understanding Smallholder Participation in Payments for Ecosystem Services: the Case of Costa Rica

This paper uses household survey data to examine factors associated with smallholder households that enroll in Costa Rica’s longstanding payments for ecosystem services (PES) program. To date, most evaluations of this sort have focused on larger landowners. Results from this study show that smallholders enrolled in PES tend to be older, wealthier, and have access to non-farm salaried income. These features match enrollment patterns of larger landowners in that enrollees tend to be relatively wealthy and only marginally engaged in agriculture. In addition, smallholders on state agrarian reform lands are significantly less likely to enroll in PES. These results indicate that targeting PES toward smaller landowners does not necessarily equate to a policy that reaches the rural poor, and suggests that further work is needed to address the access barriers to this program for economically marginal landowners.     

生态补偿权衡关系研究进展

生态补偿是以市场机制解决环境外部性问题的方法,其典型特征是通过经济激励而实现生态系统保护和减贫的双赢,因此在世界范围内得到了广泛实施。权衡关系是生态补偿理论和实践中面临的问题和困境之一。生态补偿存在4种权衡关系:生态系统服务之间的权衡、监测成本与交易成本之间的权衡、公平与效率之间的权衡以及生态系统服务供应与减贫之间的权衡。分析了权衡关系的产生源于生态系统服务产生过程的不确定性、自然和社会经济系统的耦合性以及生态补偿实施背景的异质性,并提出应该在理论基础、实践模式和评估系统3个方面加强权衡关系的研究。     

长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间特征及影响因素:基于子流域尺度分析

水文调节服务是流域生态系统所提供的重要服务之一,认识流域生态系统水文调节服务空间变异规律及其驱动力,对于流域生态系统保护与恢复、合理开发利用水资源具有重要意义。以洪涝灾害频发的长江流域为对象,运用变异系数法和多元统计方法,在子流域尺度上研究了长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间特征及影响因素。结果表明,长江流域子流域生态系统水文调节服务呈现出明显的空间异质性,水利工程密集、自然植被覆盖率高达71%的金沙江和汉江水系各子流域水文调节服务最强,降雨与径流变异系数差为0.477;农田和人口密集的嘉陵江水系各子流域水文调节服务最弱,降雨与径流变异系数差为-0.474,其他子流域水文调节服务作用不明显。影响水文调节服务的主要因素是:水库库容、自然植被面积比例、农田面积比例、单位面积人口数,其中:水库库容和自然植被面积比例对水文调节服务具有正向促进作用,农田面积比例和单位面积人口对水文调节服务的作用正好相反。水库库容对子流域生态系统水文调节服务空间异质性的贡献最大(58.85%)。上述结果有助于科学认识长江流域生态系统水文调节服务空间分异规律,可为制定不同子流域生态保护与恢复措施、提升子流域生态系统水文调节服务提供科学依据。     

Ecosystem Services and Opportunity Costs Shift Spatial Priorities for Conserving Forest Biodiversity

Inclusion of spatially explicit information on ecosystem services in conservation planning is a fairly new practice. This study analyses how the incorporation of ecosystem services as conservation features can affect conservation of forest biodiversity and how different opportunity cost constraints can change spatial priorities for conservation. We created spatially explicit cost-effective conservation scenarios for 59 forest biodiversity features and five ecosystem services in the county of Telemark (Norway) with the help of the heuristic optimisation planning software, Marxan with Zones. We combined a mix of conservation instruments where forestry is either completely (non-use zone) or partially restricted (partial use zone). Opportunity costs were measured in terms of foregone timber harvest, an important provisioning service in Telemark. Including a number of ecosystem services shifted priority conservation sites compared to a case where only biodiversity was considered, and increased the area of both the partial (+36.2%) and the non-use zone (+3.2%). Furthermore, opportunity costs increased (+6.6%), which suggests that ecosystem services may not be a side-benefit of biodiversity conservation in this area. Opportunity cost levels were systematically changed to analyse their effect on spatial conservation priorities. Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services trades off against timber harvest. Currently designated nature reserves and landscape protection areas achieve a very low proportion (9.1%) of the conservation targets we set in our scenario, which illustrates the high importance given to timber production at present. A trade-off curve indicated that large marginal increases in conservation target achievement are possible when the budget for conservation is increased. Forty percent of the maximum hypothetical opportunity costs would yield an average conservation target achievement of 79%.     

An evolutionary modeling approach for designing a contractual REDD+ payment scheme

Economic development and sustainable ecological and environmental development generally target different goals, and there are trade-offs and game-like behaviors between implementers and donors in reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) program. This paper analyzed the effects of evolutionary behaviors of REDD+ implementers and donors with respect to environmental service payments. Within a theoretical analysis framework, the evolutionary stable strategies of the implementers and donors under different contractual payments for ecosystem services (PES) scenarios are analyzed to explore contractual REDD+ payments through evolutionary game models. On this basis, anon-parametric local regression approach is used to analyze arrange of market-based contractual PES schemes in five REDD+ countries (Congo, Brazil, Ecuador, Nepal and Uganda). The results show the following: First, when the opportunity costs are less than the environmental benefits, some middle and high income developing countries are sufficiently incentivized to conserve forests, even without formal contractual PES scheme. This conservation occurs regardless of whether the industrialized countries will pay for the ecosystem services. Second, when the opportunity costs are greater than the environmental benefits, developing countries will generally not take the initiative to conserve forests when industrialized countries do not pay for the associated ecosystem services. Third, when there are enough contractual PES fines, developing countries will conserve forests, and the industrialized countries will pay for the ecosystem services. Finally, contractual PES fines are related to the costs of reducing emissions. Nepal has the largest marginal effect, and Uganda has the smallest. These results have implications for REDD+ program design and implementation: market-based contractual PES scheme should be given priority to regulate behavior of industrialized countries and developing countries in the PES scheme. Developing a targeted and differentiated contractual PES scheme requires an accounting of emission reduction costs in different countries.     

生态补偿效率研究综述

作为一种处理环境问题的政策工具集,生态补偿的目的在于通过将生态系统外部价值转化为对参与者的财政激励而增加生态系统服务供给。因此,生态补偿项目能否实现预期目标就成为生态补偿理论研究者与实践者关注的焦点与热点。基于国际上生态补偿效率理论研究与实践进展,介绍了生态补偿效率分析框架,分析了生态补偿无效率状况,较为系统地总结了影响生态补偿效率的因素,提出应从建立准确的生态补偿基线、进行生态补偿对象空间定位、合理估算真实机会成本、降低交易成本等方面出发,提高生态补偿效率。提出了生态补偿效率研究中应进一步关注的问题。     

The Prospects for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) in Vietnam: A Look at Three Payment Schemes

Global conservation discourses and practices increasingly rely on market-based solutions to fulfill the dual objective of forest conservation and economic development. Although varied, these interventions are premised on the assumption that natural resources are most effectively managed and preserved while benefiting livelihoods if the market-incentives of a liberalised economy are correctly in place. By examining three nationally supported payment for ecosystem service (PES) schemes in Vietnam we show how insecure land tenure, high transaction costs and high opportunity costs can undermine the long-term benefits of PES programmes for local households and, hence, potentially threaten their livelihood viability. In many cases, the income from PES programmes does not reach the poor because of political and economic constraints. Local elite capture of PES benefits through the monopolization of access to forestland and existing state forestry management are identified as key problems. We argue that as PES schemes create a market for ecosystem services, such markets must be understood not simply as bald economic exchanges between ‘rational actors’ but rather as exchanges embedded in particular socio-political and historical contexts to support the sustainable use of forest resources and local livelihoods in Vietnam.     

Brazil’s Market for Trading Forest Certificates

Brazil faces an enormous challenge to implement its revised Forest Code. Despite big losses for the environment, the law introduces new mechanisms to facilitate compliance and foster payment for ecosystem services (PES). The most promising of these is a market for trading forest certificates (CRAs) that allows landowners to offset their restoration obligations by paying for maintaining native vegetation elsewhere. We analyzed the economic potential for the emerging CRA market in Brazil and its implications for PES programs. Results indicate a potential market for trading 4.2 Mha of CRAs with a gross value of US$ 9.2±2.4 billion, with main regional markets forming in the states of Mato Grosso and São Paulo. This would be the largest market for trading forests in the world. Overall, the potential supply of CRAs in Brazilian states exceeds demand, creating an opportunity for additional PES programs to use the CRA market. This expanded market could provide not only monetary incentives to conserve native vegetation, but also environmental co-benefits by fostering PES programs focused on biodiversity, water conservation, and climate regulation. Effective implementation of the Forest Code will be vital to the success of this market and this hurdle brings uncertainty into the market. Long-term commitment, both within Brazil and abroad, will be essential to overcome the many challenges ahead.