血管平滑肌细胞中ERK通路与TGF-β_1/Smad通路的相互作用

目的:探讨血管平滑肌细胞(VSMC)中TGF-β/Smad与ERK信号转导通路是否存在相互调节关系。方法:原代培养的大鼠胸主动脉平滑肌细胞,分四组:①对照组,②TGF-β1组,③ERK阻断剂(PD98059)组和④TGF-β1+ERK阻断剂(PD98059)组。分别用Western blot法检测VSMC内Smad2/3、ERK1/2蛋白表达及磷酸化Smad2/3、磷酸化ERK1/2蛋白含量,RT-PCR方法测VSMC中Smad2、Smad3mRNA的表达。结果:①与对照组相比,TGF-β1组P-Smad2/3、P-ERK1/2蛋白含量增多(P0.05),ERK阻断剂组P-Smad2/3、P-ERK1/2蛋白含量减少(P0.05),TGF-β1+ERK阻断剂组P-Smad2/3、P-ERK1/2蛋白含量无差异;与TGF-β1组相比,TGF-β1+ERK阻断剂组P-Smad2/3、P-ERK1/2蛋白含量减少(P0.05)。各组间Smad2/3、ERK1/2蛋白表达无差异。②各组的Smad2、Smad3mRNA表达无差异。结论:TGF-β1诱导的Smad2/3蛋白磷酸化依赖ERK通路激活,但ERK通路对Smad2/3蛋白和mRNA表达水平无影响。     

卵巢癌中TGF-β/Smads信号通路的功能研究

为探讨卵巢癌细胞中TGF-β的信号传导情况及TGF-β／Smads信号通路各组分在卵巢癌发生中的作用,采用MTT和活细胞计数方法研究了TGF-β1对卵巢癌细胞系HO-8910、HO-8910PM及SKOV3的生长抑制作用;并应用RT-PCR、荧光免疫组化等方法研究了TGF-β／Smads传导通路中各组分的表达和定位以及TGF-β1刺激前后Smad7和P-Smad2定位及表达的变化。结果显示,TGF-β1对细胞系SKOV3没有生长抑制作用．而SK-OV3细胞表达了TGF-β／Smads信号通路中的所有已知成分。且3种卵巢癌细胞在TGF-β1刺激后Smad7mRNA瞬时表达增加,Smad7蛋白表达亦增加并由胞核转位到胞浆,P-Smad2由胞浆转位到胞核。结果表明TGF-β／Smads信号传导通路在卵巢癌细胞HO-8910、HO-8910PM和SKOV3中是完整的,SKOV3细胞逃逸TGF-β介导的生长抑制作用可能是由于TGF-β／Smads信号通路下游发生异常。     

内皮型一氧化氮合酶在胚胎小鼠肾脏发育中的表达

目的观察妊娠不同时期胚胎小鼠肾脏发育不同阶段内皮型一氧化氮合酶（eNOS）的表达,探讨eNOS在胚胎小鼠肾脏早期发育中的意义。方法分别取胚龄13d（E13）、14d（E14）、15d（E15）、16d（E16）、18d（E18）组及新生组（P0）小鼠各10只,共6组。分别用免疫组化及免疫印迹方法对小鼠肾脏内eNOS表达进行定性、定量分析。结果（1）免疫组化结果显示：E14、E15组eNOS在生肾区呈阳性表达;E16组生肾区表达减弱,肾近端小管呈强阳性表达,同时远端小管及肾脏小动脉内皮也有阳性表达;E18组、P0组近端小管呈强阳性表达,远端小管呈阳性表达,髓质中的集合管eNOS表达弱阳性,而致密斑呈阴性表达。（2）免疫印迹结果显示：E14组肾脏eNOS含量较少,随后逐渐增多,PD0组eNOS含量最多。结论（1）eNOS在小鼠肾脏第14d开始呈阳性表达,以后含量逐渐升高,出生时含量最高。（2）eNOS表达部位从生肾区开始,以后其表达逐渐减弱甚至消失,而肾近端小管、远端小管的表达晚于生肾区,且呈逐渐增强趋势,至出生时达到最强。这一结果表明eNOS在胚胎小鼠肾脏发育的早期阶段起重要调节作用。     

骨形态发生蛋白-7及抑制性Smads在糖尿病肾病发生发展中的表达变化

本文采用免疫组化、Western blot及荧光实时定量PCR方法,动态观察链脲佐菌素（streptozocin,STZ）诱导的大鼠糖尿病肾病（diabetic nephropathy,DN）发生早期肾脏骨形态发生蛋白-7（bone morphogenetic protein-7,BMP-7）、Smad6、Smad7蛋白及mRNA表达。结果显示,在正常及DN大鼠肾小管均有BMP-7、Smad6、Smad7蛋白表达,以胞浆表达为主。DN大鼠BMP-7、Smad6蛋白表达较正常大鼠明显增多（P〈0．05）,且BMP-7的mRNA表达呈先增加后降低的状态;而Smad7蛋白和mRNA的表达均呈先增加后降低的状态。转化生长因子-β1（transforming growth factor-β1,TGF-β1）及Ⅰ型胶原（collagen typeⅠ,COL-Ⅰ）mRNA在DN大鼠肾脏表达较正常大鼠明显增多（P〈0．05）,且随着糖尿病进展有逐渐增加的趋势。结果提示,作为TGF-β超家族信号分子的一员,BMP-7信号及抑制性Smad通路在DN肾纤维化发生早期可能起重要的反馈性抑制作用。     

丝胶对糖尿病肾病大鼠肾脏TGF-β_1/Smad3信号通路的作用

目的：观察彩色蚕茧提取物—丝胶对糖尿病肾病大鼠肾脏转化生长因子-β1（TGF-β1）和Smad3蛋白表达的影响。方法：60只雄性SD大鼠随机分为5组（n=12）：正常对照组、糖尿病肾病模型组、丝胶治疗组、二甲双胍组和丝胶预防组。模型组、丝胶治疗组、丝胶预防组和二甲双胍组大鼠均建立链脲佐菌素（STZ）致动物模型,以血糖≥16.7 mmol/L作为成模标准;待模型成功建立后,丝胶治疗组大鼠给予丝胶灌胃（2.4 g/（kg.d）,35 d）、二甲双胍组大鼠给予二甲双胍灌胃（55.33 mg/（kg.d）,35 d）,丝胶预防组大鼠于注射STZ前给予同等剂量丝胶灌胃35天。分别检测各组大鼠血糖和肾重/体重;免疫组化染色观察肾脏TGF-β1蛋白的表达;Western blot法观察肾脏Smad3蛋白的表达。结果：与正常对照组大鼠相比,模型组大鼠血糖、肾重/体重和肾脏TGF-β1、Smad3蛋白的表达均明显升高（P〈0.01）。丝胶治疗组、丝胶预防组和二甲双胍组大鼠的血糖和肾脏TGF-β1、Smad3蛋白的表达明显低于模型组（P〈0.01）,且丝胶治疗组、丝胶预防组与二甲双胍组比较无明显差别（P〉0.05）;丝胶治疗组、丝胶预防组和二甲双胍组大鼠的肾重/体重明显低于模型组（P〈0.01）,且丝胶治疗组、丝胶预防组大鼠的肾重/体重明显低于二甲双胍组（P〈0.05）。结论：丝胶可抑制糖尿病肾病大鼠肾脏TGF-β1/Smda3信号通路的激活,减轻肾小球硬化和肾间质纤维化,发挥对糖尿病肾病肾脏损伤的保护和预防保护作用,且作用与二甲双胍相当。     

糖尿病大鼠血糖控制前后肾小管上皮细胞VEGF、TGF-β1及Smad蛋白表达的动态研究

目的动态观察链脲佐菌素（STZ）诱导的糖尿病大鼠血糖控制前后肾小管上皮细胞（TEC）中血管内皮生长因子（VEGF）、转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）、Smad2/3、Smad4的表达情况,探讨四者在糖尿病大鼠TEC表型转变和肾间质纤维化中可能发挥的作用及相互关系。方法实验动物随机分为5组,依病程长短分为①A组（2周组）,②B组（4周组）,③C组（8周组）,④D组（16周组）,⑤E组（24周组）,每组分别设有正常对照组（N组）和糖尿病组（a组）;另外,16周、24周两组加设胰岛素治疗组（b组）。采用尾静脉注射STZ法复制糖尿病大鼠模型;免疫组织化学方法检测肾小管VEGF、TGF-β1、Smad2/3、Smad4及α-平滑肌肌动蛋白（-αSMA）和纤连蛋白（FN）的表达;Western blot检测肾皮质VEGF和TGF-β1蛋白;PAS染色光镜观察肾小管基底膜变化及细胞外基质沉积情况等形态学改变;生化方法测定血糖、血肌酐及24小时尿蛋白量。结果正常对照组VEGF、TGF-β1及Smad2/3、Smad4在肾小管均有少量表达,-αSMA在肾小管无表达;糖尿病组肾小管前述四者的表达均显著高于正常对照组,且从16周开始肾小管上皮细胞可见α-SMA蛋白阳性表达;糖尿病16周时肾小管VEGF、TGF-β1、Smad2/3、Smad4两两之间呈正相关;随糖尿病进展,α-SMA及FN在肾小管表达增多,24h尿蛋白增多,肾脏肥大指数增大,而VEGF、TGF-β1二者都分别和-αSMA、FN、24h尿蛋白及肾脏肥大指数呈正相关性;胰岛素治疗后,VEGF、TGF-β1、Smad2/3、Smad4及FN的表达都比糖尿病组明显下降,且各指标之间的正相关性依然存在,-αSMA蛋白则呈阴性表达。结论糖尿病肾病大鼠肾小管上皮细胞表达的VEGF、TGF-β1及Smad2/3、Smad4参与了TEC表型转变和肾间质纤维化的发生,并且VEGF和TGF-β1相互作用,共同促进了肾脏损害。胰岛素对DN大鼠TEMT和肾间质纤维化的影响可能部分是通过间接阻断VEGF、TGF-β1和Smad2/3、Smad4在TEC中的合成来实现的。     

藏红花酸对TGF-β1刺激的人肝星状细胞LX-2信号转导通路的影响

目的:研究藏红花酸(crocetin)对转化生长因子-β1(TGF-β1)刺激的人肝星状细胞LX-2信号转导通路的影响。方法:体外培养LX-2细胞,随机设立空白对照组,模型组,藏红花酸低剂量组,藏红花酸中剂量组,藏红花酸高剂量组,用含10%血清的1640培养液培养48 h,MTT法测各组细胞增殖,蛋白免疫印迹测定各组细胞α-SMA蛋白的表达,实时荧光定量PCR法测各组细胞Smad2、Smad3、Smad7mRNA的表达。结果:与对照组比较,TGF-β1刺激后人肝星状细胞LX-2增殖作用明显,且上调α-SMA蛋白、Smad2mRNA、Smad3mRNA表达,下调Smad7mRNA表达(P0.01)与模型组比较,藏红花酸组均能抑制LX-2细胞增殖,并呈剂量依赖性,高、中剂量组作用明显,能够明显下调α-SMA蛋白、Smad2mRNA、Smad3mRNA表达,上调Smad7mRNA表达,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:藏红花酸对TGF-β1刺激的LX-2细胞中Smad7mRNA具有上调作用,对Smad2、Smad3mRNA具有下调作用,其抗肝纤维化作用可能与抑制TGF-β1/Smads信号转导通路有关。     

转化生长因子β1对大鼠心肌细胞肥大的影响

目的：研究转化生长因子β1（TGF-β1）及其下游Smad3信号蛋白在大鼠心肌细胞肥大中的作用。方法：TGF-β1干预培养新生大鼠心肌细胞,流式细胞仪检测心肌细胞总蛋白含量。结扎大鼠腹主动脉复制心肌肥厚模型,在不同时间点处死动物,检测左室质量指数（LVM1）,RT—PCR检测TGF-β1及Smad3的mRNA表达,Westernblot检测Smad3蛋白的表达。结果：不同剂量TGF-β1均能明显增加体外培养的心肌细胞总蛋白含量,TGF-β1（3ng／ml）还增加心肌细胞Smad3 mRNA和蛋白的表达,其表达量1h达高峰,持续至TGF-β1刺激后8h。大鼠腹主动脉结扎术后3d LVMI开始上升并持续至术后28d,心肌组织中TGF-β1、Smad3的mRNA表达水平以及Smad3蛋白表达术后3d也开始上升持续至术后28d,术后14d为表达高峰（P〈0．01）。结论：TGF-β1能诱导大鼠心肌细胞肥大,其信号蛋白Smad3参与了大鼠心肌肥大的病理过程。     

大天鹅肾组织显微结构及细胞凋亡相关蛋白的表达

为了解大天鹅(Cygnus cygnus)肾的结构特点和相关活性蛋白的表达情况,采用石蜡切片、H.E染色和免疫组化法,观察分析大天鹅的肾组织显微结构和Caspase-3、Bcl-2、Bax及AQP-3的表达。大天鹅的肾组织主要由肾单位、集合管和结缔组织构成;肾小球由一团盘曲的毛细血管构成,近端小管由单层立方上皮组成,游离面有刷状缘,细段由单层扁平上皮组成,远端小管由立方形上皮组成,腔面无刷状缘。近端小管上皮细胞中有Caspase-3、Bcl-2、Bax阳性表达,远端小管上皮细胞有Caspase-3阳性表达,集合管上皮细胞有Bcl-2、AQP-3阳性表达,在肾小球毛细血管内皮有Bcl-2阳性表达。Caspase-3、Bcl-2、Bax及AQP-3共同调节细胞的生长与凋亡过程,可能在稳定鸟类肾单位和集合管结构及调节肾组织水平衡等方面有重要的作用。     

哺乳动物印记域DLK1-DIO3的研究进展

DLK1-DIO3印记域定位于人14号染色体、小鼠12号染色体及绵羊18号染色体远端, 在真哺乳亚纲动物中印记保守。该印记域包含3个编码蛋白的父系表达基因Dlk1、Rtl1和Dio3以及若干大小不同的母系表达印记非编码RNA, 如miRNAs、snoRNAs 和大型非编码RNA Gtl2等。人和小鼠该印记域内印记基因剂量的改变将导致严重的表型异常甚至胚胎致死, 暗示正常的发育需要域内印记基因的正常表达。文章重点论述了哺乳动物DLK1-DIO3印记域的印记调控机制和域内印记基因及其功能的研究进展。     

Localization of TGF-beta signaling intermediates Smad2, 3, 4, and 7 in developing and mature human and mouse kidney.

Smad proteins are signaling intermediates of the TGF-beta superfamily and are involved in a range of biological activities including development and immune responses. We studied the expression of TGF-beta-receptor activated Smads (Smad2 and Smad3), the common partner Smad (Smad4), an inhibitory Smad (Smad7), and the activated (phosphorylated) Smad2 (pSmad2) in developing and adult kidneys of humans and mice. These studies demonstrate associated expression of these Smads in multiple renal cell types in all developmental stages and in mature non-diseased kidneys. Smad expression is in general most widespread at the earliest stages of nephron development and diminishes as components of the nephrons become more differentiated. Paucity of Smad expression in mesangial cells in contrast to widespread expression of these Smads in glomerular visceral epithelial cells in both developing and mature kidneys was remarkable. Divergent and less extensive expression of Smad4, compared with other Smad proteins, was also demonstrated in tubules of human kidneys. Based on the observed expression patterns, these findings demonstrate, for the first time, expression of the TGF-beta-receptor-activated Smad2 and Smad3, the common mediator Smad4, and the inhibitory Smad7 in the developing human fetal kidney, extending observations previously made in rodent systems to humans.     

Adult human CD133/1(+) kidney cells isolated from papilla integrate into developing kidney tubules

Approximately 60,000 patients in the United States are waiting for a kidney transplant due to genetic, immunologic and environmentally caused kidney failure. Adult human renal stem cells could offer opportunities for autologous transplant and repair of damaged organs. Current data suggest that there are multiple progenitor types in the kidney with distinct localizations. In the present study, we characterize cells derived from human kidney papilla and show their capacity for tubulogenesis. In situ, nestin(+) and CD133/1(+) cells were found extensively intercalated between tubular epithelia in the loops of Henle of renal papilla, but not of the cortex. Populations of primary cells from the renal cortex and renal papilla were isolated by enzymatic digestion from human kidneys unsuited for transplant and immuno-enriched for CD133/1(+) cells. Isolated CD133/1(+) papillary cells were positive for nestin, as well as several human embryonic stem cell markers (SSEA4, Nanog, SOX2, and OCT4/POU5F1) and could be triggered to adopt tubular epithelial and neuronal-like phenotypes. Isolated papillary cells exhibited morphologic plasticity upon modulation of culture conditions and inhibition of asymmetric cell division. Labeled papillary cells readily associated with cortical tubular epithelia in co-culture and 3-dimensional collagen gel cultures. Heterologous organ culture demonstrated that CD133/1(+) progenitors from the papilla and cortex became integrated into developing kidney tubules. Tubular epithelia did not participate in tubulogenesis. Human renal papilla harbor cells with the hallmarks of adult kidney stem/progenitor cells that can be amplified and phenotypically modulated in culture while retaining the capacity to form new kidney tubules. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Polycystic Kidney Disease.     

Acetyl‐11‐keto‐β‐boswellic acid ameliorates renal interstitial fibrosis via Klotho/TGF‐β/Smad signalling pathway

Acetyl‐11‐keto‐β‐boswellic acid (AKBA), an active triterpenoid compound from the extract of Boswellia serrate, has been reported previously in our group to alleviate fibrosis in vascular remodelling. This study aimed to elucidate the in vivo and in vitro efficacy and mechanism of AKBA in renal interstitial fibrosis. The experimental renal fibrosis was produced in C57BL/6 mice via unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Hypoxia‐induced HK‐2 cells were used to imitate the pathological process of renal fibrosis in vitro. Results showed that the treatment of AKBA significantly alleviated UUO‐induced impairment of renal function and improved the renal fibrosis by decreasing the expression of TGF‐β1, α‐SMA, collagen I and collagen IV in UUO kidneys. In hypoxia‐induced HK‐2 cells, AKBA displayed remarkable cell protective effects and anti‐fibrotic properties by increasing the cell viability, decreasing the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and inhibiting fibrotic factor expression. Moreover, in obstructed kidneys and HK‐2 cells, AKBA markedly down‐regulated the expression of TGFβ‐RI, TGFβ‐RII, phosphorylated‐Smad2/3 (p‐Smad2/3) and Smad4 in a dose‐dependent fashion while up‐regulated the expression of Klotho and Smad7 in the same manner. In addition, the effects of AKBA on the Klotho/TGF‐β/Smad signalling were reversed by transfecting with siRNA‐Klotho in HK‐2 cells. In conclusion, our findings provide evidence that AKBA can effectively protect kidney against interstitial fibrosis, and this renoprotective effect involves the Klotho/TGF‐β/Smad signalling pathway. Therefore, AKBA could be considered as a promising candidate drug for renal interstitial fibrosis.     

Adult human CD133/1 kidney cells isolated from papilla integrate into developing kidney tubules

Approximately 60,000 patients in the United States are waiting for a kidney transplant due to genetic, immunologic and environmentally caused kidney failure. Adult human renal stem cells could offer opportunities for autologous transplant and repair of damaged organs. Current data suggest that there are multiple progenitor types in the kidney with distinct localizations. In the present study, we characterize cells derived from human kidney papilla and show their capacity for tubulogenesis. In situ, nestin⁺ and CD133/1⁺ cells were found extensively intercalated between tubular epithelia in the loops of Henle of renal papilla, but not of the cortex. Populations of primary cells from the renal cortex and renal papilla were isolated by enzymatic digestion from human kidneys unsuited for transplant and immuno-enriched for CD133/1⁺ cells. Isolated CD133/1⁺ papillary cells were positive for nestin, as well as several human embryonic stem cell markers (SSEA4, Nanog, SOX2, and OCT4/POU5F1) and could be triggered to adopt tubular epithelial and neuronal-like phenotypes. Isolated papillary cells exhibited morphologic plasticity upon modulation of culture conditions and inhibition of asymmetric cell division. Labeled papillary cells readily associated with cortical tubular epithelia in co-culture and 3-dimensional collagen gel cultures. Heterologous organ culture demonstrated that CD133/1⁺ progenitors from the papilla and cortex became integrated into developing kidney tubules. Tubular epithelia did not participate in tubulogenesis. Human renal papilla harbor cells with the hallmarks of adult kidney stem/progenitor cells that can be amplified and phenotypically modulated in culture while retaining the capacity to form new kidney tubules. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Polycystic Kidney Disease.     

Genetic deficiency of Smad3 protects the kidneys from atrophy and interstitial fibrosis in 2K1C hypertension

Although the two-kidney, one-clip (2K1C) model is widely used as a model of human renovascular hypertension, mechanisms leading to the development of fibrosis and atrophy in the cuffed kidney and compensatory hyperplasia in the contralateral kidney have not been defined. Based on the well-established role of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathway in renal fibrosis, we tested the hypothesis that abrogation of TGF-β/Smad3 signaling would prevent fibrosis in the cuffed kidney. Renal artery stenosis (RAS) was established in mice with a targeted disruption of exon 2 of the Smad3 gene (Smad3 KO) and wild-type (WT) controls by placement of a polytetrafluoroethylene cuff on the right renal artery. Serial pulse-wave Doppler ultrasound assessments verified that blood flow through the cuffed renal artery was decreased to a similar extent in Smad3 KO and WT mice. Two weeks after surgery, systolic blood pressure and plasma renin activity were significantly elevated in both the Smad3 KO and WT mice. The cuffed kidney of WT mice developed renal atrophy (50% reduction in weight after 6 wk, P < 0.0001), which was associated with the development of interstitial fibrosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial inflammation. Remarkably, despite a similar reduction of renal blood flow, the cuffed kidney of the Smad3 KO mice showed minimal atrophy (9% reduction in weight, P = not significant), with no significant histopathological alterations (interstitial fibrosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial inflammation). We conclude that abrogation of TGF-β/Smad3 signaling confers protection against the development of fibrosis and atrophy in RAS.     

Deletion of Smad3 protects against C-reactive protein-induced renal fibrosis and inflammation in obstructive nephropathy

Introduction and Aims: Elevated plasma levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) are closely associated with progressive renal injury in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Here, we tested a hypothesis that CRP may promote renal fibrosis and inflammation via a TGF-β/Smad3-dependent mechanism.Methods: Role and mechanisms of TGF-β/Smad3 in CRP-induced renal fibrosis and inflammation were examined in a mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) induced in CRP Tg/Smad3 KO mice and in a rat tubular epithelial cell line in which Smad3 gene is stably knocked down (S3KD-NRK52E).Results: We found that mice overexpressing the human CRP gene were largely promoted renal inflammation and fibrosis as evidenced by increasing IL-1β, TNF-α, MCP-1 expression, F4/80⁺ macrophages infiltration, and marked accumulation of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen I and fibronectin in the UUO kidney, which were blunted when Smad3 gene was deleted in CRPtg-Smad3KO. Mechanistically, we found that the protection of renal inflammation and fibrosis in the UUO kidney of CRPtg-Smad3KO mice was associated with the inactivation of CD32-NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad3 signaling.Conclusion: In conclusion, Smad3 deficiency protects against CRP-mediated renal inflammation and fibrosis in the UUO kidney by inactivating CD32-NF-κB and TGF-β/Smad3 signaling.     

Short-chain fatty acid mitigates adenine-induced chronic kidney disease via FFA2 and FFA3 pathways

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including acetate, butyrate, and propionate, are produced when colonic bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract ferment undigested fibers. Free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) and FFA3 are G-protein-coupled receptors recently identified as SCFA receptors that may modulate inflammation. We previously showed through in vitro experiments that SCFAs activate FFA2 and FFA3, thereby mitigating inflammation in human renal cortical epithelial cells. This study used a murine model of adenine-induced renal failure to investigate whether or not SCFAs can prevent the progression of renal damage. We also examined whether or not these FFA2 and FFA3 proteins have some roles in this protective mechanism in vivo. Immunohistochemical analyses of mouse kidneys showed that FFA2 and FFA3 proteins were expressed mainly in the distal renal tubules and collecting tubules. First, we observed that the administration of propionate mitigated the renal dysfunction and pathological deterioration caused by adenine. Consistent with this, the expression of inflammatory cytokines and fibrosis-related genes was reduced. Furthermore, the mitigation of adenine-induced renal damage by the administration of propionate was significantly attenuated in FFA2^−/− and FFA3^−/− mice. Therefore, the administration of propionate significantly protects against adenine-induced renal failure, at least in part, via the FFA2 and FFA3 pathways. Our data suggest that FFA2 and FFA3 are potential new therapeutic targets for preventing or delaying the progression of chronic kidney disease.     

Sphingosine kinase 2 cooperating with Fyn promotes kidney fibroblast activation and fibrosis via STAT3 and AKT

Sphingosine kinases (Sphks) are the rate-limiting enzymes in the conversion of sphingosine to biologically active sphingosine-1-phosphate. The present study aimed to determine the role of Sphk2 and its downstream targets in renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis. In the kidney interstitium of patients with renal fibrosis, Sphk2^high-expressing cells (mainly interstitial fibroblasts) were significantly elevated and highly correlated with disease progression in patients. In a murine model of renal interstitial fibrosis, Sphk2 was upregulated in the kidney of wild-type mice in response to disease progression. Importantly, Sphk2-knockout (KO) mice exhibited significantly lower levels of extracellular matrix (ECM) production and a suppressed inflammatory response in the kidney tissues, compared to those in their wild-type counterparts, whereas the expression of TGF-β1 was unaffected. TGF-β1 effectively upregulated Sphk2 expression in the renal interstitial fibroblast line, NRK-49F, independent of canonical Smad signaling activation. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated Sphk2 knockdown or suppression of Sphk2 activity by ABC294640 exposure effectively attenuated AKT and STAT3 activation and ECM production, but had no effects on Smad2 and Smad3 activation. Sphk2 phosphorylated Fyn to activate downstream STAT3 and AKT, thereby promoting ECM synthesis. Therefore, our findings indicate that targeting Sphk2-Fyn-STAT3/AKT signaling pathway may be a novel therapeutic approach for renal fibrosis.