腺病毒及腺病毒相关病毒载体与基因治疗

腺病毒及腺病毒相关病毒能感染增殖与静止的细胞,宿主范围广,其稳定,安全滴度高,转染效率高,腺病毒载体能承载较大的外源基因,腺病毒相关病毒载体能定向整合入靶细胞基因组内等特点,使腺病毒及腺病毒相关病毒载体成为体内用于基因治疗的理想运载系统。     

病毒感染复数影响腺病毒感染T淋巴细胞效率的初步研究

以往研究发现,增加感染复数(multiplicity of infection,MOI)可以有效提高5型腺病毒(Ad5)感染T细胞的效率,但其具体机制并未十分清楚。选取T淋巴瘤细胞为靶细胞,通过荧光定量PCR及透射电镜观察等方法探讨不同MOI对重组腺病毒Ad5-GFP复制周期中病毒结合及病毒进入两个环节的影响,发现高MOI条件下不会影响T细胞结合的腺病毒数量,却可显著增加经胞吞进入T细胞的腺病毒数量。这些结果表明,增加MOI有利于腺病毒经胞吞进入T细胞,从而可提高腺病毒感染效率。这为进一步研究腺病毒感染T淋巴细胞的机制提供了理论基础。     

胞间连丝与大分子物质的胞间转运机制

胞间连丝是相邻细胞间共质体运输的桥梁。基于对胞间连丝分子组成及超微结构的研究,不同学者提出了不同的胞间连丝结构模型。对其功能的研究表明,胞间连丝在物质运输、信息传递、病毒的周身感染等方面都具有重要作用。文章就胞间连丝的结构、分子组成及病毒介导的大分子胞间转移,以及对内源蛋白质的胞间转运机制诸方面的研究进展作了概述。     

利用TAT多肽增强腺病毒对细胞感染效率的研究

蛋白转导多肽本身或携带生物大分子能以一种不明机制的方式高效地穿过真核细胞质膜并且几乎没有组织选择性。这为生物药物研究、基因治疗等领域带来了新的希望。最近有研究表明:来源于HIV-1的TAT蛋白的蛋白转导结构域多肽可以显著地提高重组腺病毒感染细胞和实验动物的效率。在对。HeLa且和Vero-E62种具有不同病毒易感性的细胞进行重组腺病毒感染实验时发现TAT多肽可以明显地提高重组腺病毒对HeLa细胞的感染及在细胞中外源报道基因的表达,但是对Vero-E6细胞却没有效果,表明TAT多肽增强重组腺病毒的感染与靶细胞类型有关,而并不像转导现象那样没有组织差异。这为蛋白转导技术在病毒载体中的应用提供了参考,但其中涉及的蛋白转导的机制有待进一步实验研究。     

腺病毒载体衣壳蛋白质的遗传修饰

腺病毒载体是最早用于基因治疗研究的病毒载体之一,也是目前肿瘤基因治疗中最为常见的病毒载体之一,其主要通过靶细胞表面的天然柯萨奇腺病毒受体(coxsackie and adenovirus receptor,CAR)感染宿主细胞。由于大多数肿瘤细胞表面该受体表达水平较低,降低了腺病毒载体对靶细胞的感染效率,从而制约了腺病毒载体在肿瘤基因治疗中的应用。因此,如何提高腺病毒载体对靶细胞的感染效率是腺病毒载体应用于肿瘤基因治疗的关键。目前对腺病毒载体衣壳蛋白质(capsid protein)的遗传修饰是提高其对宿主细胞感染效率的主要途径。本文将对这一领域的主要研究进展作一综述,为该方面的研究提供有用的信息。     

BrdU标记的人巨细胞病毒感染HEL细胞的方法学研究

目的 以标记在人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)DNA上的BrdU为示踪剂,研究病毒在受染HEL细胞中的移动过程;同时结合病毒蛋白pp65的表达探讨病毒复制、增殖的过程。方法 以BrdU标记的HCMV(MOI=4)感染HEL细胞,分别选取感染后2h、4h、6h、24h及48h 5个时间点的细胞,用抗BrdU单克隆抗体,研究病毒核酸的胞内定位;同时用抗HCMV蛋白pp65的单克隆抗体检测此蛋白的表达及分布。结果 免疫细胞荧光染色结果提示:在感染5个时间点,病毒DNA依次位于胞质、胞核及同时位于胞核和胞质;蛋白pp65的表达及分布规律为:胞内无表达、胞核分布、胞核与胞质同时分布及巨细胞和融合细胞内分布。结论 以BrdU为标记物标记双链DNA病毒核酸不仅为研究HCMV．的胞内移动提供了良好的模型,同时也为其他病毒的研究提供了良好的工具;本实验结合HCMV蛋白pp65的表达和分布直观地反应了HCMV感染HEL细胞并在其中复制、增殖的过程。     

人巨细胞病毒病毒体的组装研究新进展

阐明人巨细胞病毒（HCMV）病毒体的组装过程对研究HCMV致病分子机制有重要意义,同时可为抗病毒药物的设计与运用提供新的思路。HCMV组装可概括为两大阶段：初期为入核阶段,主要为核衣壳的组装。在胞质中表达的病毒蛋白形成多种形式的多聚体进入细胞核,在核内相互作用形成衣壳并将病毒DNA装入衣壳中,核衣壳初步形成。第二阶段为出核阶段,主要涉及被膜与包膜的组装。在核中形成的原始核衣壳出核移至胞质,最终在胞质中组装完成,此过程极其复杂,涉及众多蛋白间相互作用及宿主细胞的参与。值得一提的是,组装过程中多种蛋白的变异会导致病毒复制失败。组装完成的病毒体经修饰成熟释放出细胞后,再感染新的宿主细胞。本文对HCMV病毒体组装机制的最新研究作一综述。     

一种经miniSOG标记的人腺病毒的制备

为了探索腺病毒感染细胞后病毒核心在胞内运输的过程,本研究构建了一株经miniSOG标记IX蛋白的人腺病毒。首先,我们通过重叠延伸PCR的方法合成了miniSOG基因,将其克隆至pcDNA3表达载体后转染293细胞,荧光显微镜下可观察到miniSOG蛋白的表达,经固定,封闭,DAB-H2O2染色,OsO4固定染色后,可见表达miniSOG蛋白的细胞呈深褐色。之后将miniSOG构建至腺病毒穿梭载体pShuttle的IX基因3’端,并通过与骨架质粒pAdeasy-1在E.coli BJ5183细菌内同源重组获得了重组腺病毒质粒pAd5-IXSOG。pAd5-IXSOG质粒经PacI酶切线性化后转染293细胞,拯救出重组腺病毒HAdV-5-IXSOG。经过8轮扩增,超速离心纯化后获得2.0ml浓度为6.0×1011vp/mL的重组腺病毒,电子显微镜下可见完整病毒颗粒。本研究经反向遗传学技术对腺病毒载体进行改造,成功制备了经miniSOG标记的重组腺病毒HAdV-5-IXSOG,该病毒可用于腺病毒感染细胞的实时追踪。     

油桐尺蠖核型多角体病毒感染Bs484细胞的增殖与病理研究

用油桐尺蠖核型多角体病毒（ＢｓＮＰＶ）感染Ｂｓ４８４细胞,对感染后病毒增殖的部分性质及细胞病理变化进行了研究。结果表明：１．病毒子代的增殖在感染后的不同时间具有不同的变化形式,且增殖量与感染剂量具有一定程度的相关,２．病毒感染细胞后１２小时开始在培养物上清检测到明显的胞外病毒粒子;３．就ＢｓＮＰＶ的增殖而言,２４～２６℃是其最佳发育温度;４．病毒感染细胞后的明显病变特征是核内充满多用体,细胞堆积以及细胞体积膨大,同时观察到二类感染细胞,一种核内含较多的多角体,另一种核内则只有几个多用体。     

流感病毒的复制及期调控研究进展

流感病毒复制涉及一系列复杂的核几，外生物大分子转运过程。感染早期，进入胞质的ＶＲＮＰ转运到核内；晚期，病毒转录本向核外运输，新合成的结构蛋土随之运往核内，在核中完成ｖＲＮＰ装配，核中装配的子代ｖＲＮＰ又运往胞质。     

Microtubule-independent motility and nuclear targeting of adenoviruses with fluorescently labeled genomes

A novel adenovirus system for analyzing the adenovirus entry pathway has been developed that contains green fluorescent protein bound to the encapsidated viral DNA (AdLite viruses). AdLite viruses enter host cells and accumulate around the nuclei and near the microtubule organizing centers (MTOC). In live cells, individual AdLite particles were observed trafficking both toward and away from the nucleus. Depolymerization of microtubules during infection prevented AdLite accumulation around the MTOC; however, it did not abolish perinuclear localization of AdLite particles. Furthermore, depolymerization of microtubules did not affect AdLite motility and did not affect gene expression from wild-type adenovirus and adenovirus-derived vectors. These data revealed that adenovirus intracellular motility and nuclear targeting can be supported by a mechanism that does not rely on the microtubule network.     

Intracellular trafficking of adeno-associated virus vectors: routing to the late endosomal compartment and proteasome degradation

The early steps of adeno-associated virus (AAV) infection involve attachment to a variety of cell surface receptors (heparan sulfate, integrins, and fibroblast growth factor receptor 1) followed by clathrin-dependent or independent internalization. Here we have studied the subsequent intracellular trafficking of AAV particles from the endosomal compartment to the nucleus. Human cell lines were transduced with a recombinant AAV (rAAV) carrying a reporter gene (luciferase or green fluorescent protein) in the presence of agents that affect trafficking. The effects of bafilomycin A(1), brefeldin A, and MG-132 were measured. These drugs act at the level of endosome acidification, early-to-late endosome transition, and proteasome activity, respectively. We observed that the transducing virions needed to be routed as far as the late endosomal compartment. This behavior was markedly different from that observed with adenovirus particles. Antiproteasome treatments with MG-132 led to a 50-fold enhancement in transduction efficiency. This effect was accompanied by a 10-fold intracellular accumulation of single-stranded DNA AAV genomes, suggesting that the mechanism of transduction enhancement was different from the one mediated by a helper adenovirus, which facilitates the conversion of the rAAV single-stranded DNA genome into its replicative form. MG-132, a drug currently in clinical use, could be of practical use for potentializing rAAV-mediated delivery of therapeutic genes.     

Microtubule-mediated and microtubule-independent transport of adenovirus type 5 in HEK293 cells

Adenovirus serotypes 2 and 5 are taken into cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis, and following release from endosomes, destabilized virions travel along microtubules to accumulate around the nucleus. The entry process culminates in delivery of the viral genome through nuclear pores. This model is based on studies with conventional cell lines, such as HeLa and HEp-2, but in HEK293 cells, which are routinely used in this laboratory because they are permissive for replication of multiple adenovirus serotypes, a different trafficking pattern has been observed. Nuclei of 293 cells have an irregular shape, with an indented region, and virions directly labeled with carboxyfluorescein accumulate in a cluster within that indented region. The clusters, which form in close proximity to the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) and to the Golgi apparatus, are remarkably stable; a fluorescent signal can be seen in the MTOC region up to 16 h postinfection. Furthermore, if cells are infected and then undergo mitosis after the cluster is formed, the signal is found at each spindle pole. Despite the sequestration of virions near the MTOC, 293 cells are no less sensitive than other cells to productive infection with adenovirus. Even though cluster formation depends on intact microtubules, infectivity is not compromised by disruption of microtubules with either nocodazole or colchicine, as determined by expression of an enhanced green fluorescent protein reporter gene inserted in the viral genome. These results indicate that virion clusters do not represent the infectious pathway and suggest an alternative route to the nucleus that does not depend on nocodazole-sensitive microtubules.     

Fiber Swap between Adenovirus Subgroups B and C Alters Intracellular Trafficking of Adenovirus Gene Transfer Vectors

Following receptor binding and internalization, intracellular trafficking of adenovirus (Ad) among subgroups B and C is different, with significant amounts of Ad serotype 7 (Ad7) (subgroup B) virions found in cytoplasm during the initial hours of infection while Ad5 (subgroup C) virions rapidly translocate to the nucleus. To evaluate the role of the fiber in these differences, we examined intracellular trafficking of Ad5, Ad7, and Ad5f7 (a chimeric vector composed of the Ad5 capsid with the fiber replaced by the Ad7 fiber) by conjugating Ad capsids directly with Cy3 fluorescent dye, permitting the trafficking of the capsids to be examined by fluorescence microscopy. The human lung carcinoma cell line A549 was infected with Cy3-conjugated viruses for 10 min followed by a 1-h incubation. Ad5 virions rapidly translocated to the nucleus (within 1 h of infection), while Ad7 virions were widely distributed in the cytoplasm at the same time point. Interestingly, chimeric Ad5f7 virions behaved similarly to Ad7 but not Ad5. In this regard, the percentages of nuclear localization of Ad5, Ad7, and Ad5f7 at 1 h following infection were 72% +/- 4%, 32% +/- 6%, and 38% +/- 2%, respectively. Consistent with these observations, fluorescence in situ hybridization demonstrated that most of the Ad5 DNA was detected at the nucleus after 1 h, but at the same time point, DNA of Ad7 and Ad5f7 was distributed in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. Quantification of the kinetics of Ad genomic DNA delivery to the nucleus using a fluorogenic probe-based PCR assay (TaqMan PCR) demonstrated that the percentages of nuclear association of Ad5 DNA and Ad5f7 DNA at 1 h postinfection were 80% +/- 13% and 43% +/- 1%, respectively. Although it has been generally accepted that Ad fiber protein mediates attachment of virions to cells and that fibers dissociate during endocytic uptake, these data suggest that in addition to mediating binding to the cell surface, fiber likely modulates intracellular trafficking as well.     

Feline immunodeficiency virus Gag is a nuclear shuttling protein

Lentiviral genomic RNAs are encapsidated by the viral Gag protein during virion assembly. The intracellular location of the initial Gag-RNA interaction is unknown. We previously observed feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) Gag accumulating at the nuclear envelope during live-cell imaging, which suggested that trafficking of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and FIV Gag may differ. Here we analyzed the nucleocytoplasmic transport properties of both Gag proteins. We discovered that inhibition of the CRM1 nuclear export pathway with leptomycin B causes FIV Gag but not HIV-1 Gag to accumulate in the nucleus. Virtually all FIV Gag rapidly became intranuclear when the CRM1 export pathway was blocked, implying that most if not all FIV Gag normally undergoes nuclear cycling. In FIV-infected feline cells, some intranuclear Gag was detected in the steady state without leptomycin B treatment. When expressed individually, the FIV matrix (MA), capsid (CA), and nucleocapsid-p2 (NC-p2) domains were not capable of mediating leptomycin B-sensitive nuclear export of a fluorescent protein. In contrast, CA-NC-p2 did mediate nuclear export, with MA being dispensable. We conclude that HIV-1 and FIV Gag differ strikingly in a key intracellular trafficking property. FIV Gag is a nuclear shuttling protein that utilizes the CRM1 nuclear export pathway, while HIV-1 Gag is excluded from the nucleus. These findings expand the spectrum of lentiviral Gag behaviors and raise the possibility that FIV genome encapsidation may initiate in the nucleus.     

Intracellular forms of adenovirus DNA. V. Viral DNA sequences in hamster cells abortively infected and transformed with human adenovirus type 12.

The persistence of viral DNA in BHK-21 cells abortively infected with human adenovirus type 12 has been investigated using reassociation kinetics. No indication of an increase in the amount of viral DNA per cell has been found. On the contrary, the amount of intracellular viral DNA sequences decreases rapidly after infection. Thus, free adenovirus type 12 DNA does not replicate in BHK-21 cells. The influence of the multiplicity of infection on the amount of persisting adenovirus type 12 DNA has also been explored. The viral DNA sequences persisting in four lines of hamster cells transformed in vitro by adenovirus type 12 at various multiplicities of infection have been quantitated and mapped by reassociation kinetics experiments using restriction endonuclease fragments of 3H-labeled adenovirus type 12 DNA. All the EcoRI restriction nuclease fragments of the adenovirus type 12 genome are represented in each of the four cell lines. Individual fragments of the viral genome are represented in multiple copies in non-equimolar amounts.     

Infectious entry pathway of adeno-associated virus and adeno-associated virus vectors

We have investigated the infectious entry pathway of adeno-associated virus (AAV) and recombinant AAV vectors by assessing AAV-mediated gene transfer and by covalently conjugating fluorophores to AAV and monitoring entry by fluorescence microscopy. We examined AAV entry in HeLa cells and in HeLa cell lines which inducibly expressed a dominant interfering mutant of dynamin. The data demonstrate that AAV internalizes rapidly by standard receptor-mediated endocytosis from clathrin-coated pits (half-time <10 min). The lysosomotropic agents ammonium chloride and bafilomycin A(1) prevent AAV-mediated gene transfer when present during the first 30 min after the onset of endocytosis, indicating that AAV escapes from early endosomes yet requires an acidic environment for penetration into the cytosol. Following release from the endosome, AAV rapidly moves to the cell nucleus and accumulates perinuclearly beginning within 30 min after the onset of endocytosis. We present data indicating that escape of AAV from the endosome and trafficking of viral particles to the nucleus are unaffected by the presence of adenovirus, the primary helper virus for a productive AAV infection. Within 2 h, viral particles could be detected within the cell nucleus, suggesting that AAV enters the nucleus prior to uncoating. Interestingly, the majority of the intracellular virus particles remain in a stable perinuclear compartment even though gene expression from nuclear AAV genomes can be detected. This suggests that the process of nuclear entry is rate limiting or that AAV entry involves multiple pathways. Nevertheless, these data establish specific points in the AAV infectious entry process and have allowed the generation of a model for future expansion to specific cell types and AAV vector analysis in vivo.     

Membrane-bound trafficking regulates nuclear transport of integral epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and ErbB-2

Nuclear localization of multiple receptor-tyrosine kinases (RTKs), such as EGF receptor (EGFR), ErbB-2, FGF receptor (FGFR), and many others, has been reported by several groups. We previously showed that cell surface EGFR is trafficked to the nucleus through a retrograde pathway from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and that EGFR is then translocated to the inner nuclear membrane (INM) through the INTERNET (integral trafficking from the ER to the nuclear envelope transport) pathway. However, the nuclear trafficking mechanisms of other membrane RTKs, apart from EGFR, remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to compare the nuclear transport of EGFR family proteins with that of FGFR-1. Interestingly, we found that digitonin permeabilization, which selectively releases soluble nuclear transporters from the cytoplasm and has been shown to inhibit nuclear transport of FGFR-1, had no effects on EGFR nuclear transport, raising the possibility that EGFR and FGFR-1 use different pathways to be translocated into the nucleus. Using the subnuclear fractionation assay, we further demonstrated that biotinylated cell surface ErbB-2, but not FGFR-1, is targeted to the INM, associating with Sec61β in the INM, similar to the nuclear trafficking of EGFR. Thus, ErbB-2, but not FGFR-1, shows a similar trafficking pathway to EGFR for translocation to the nucleus, indicating that at least two different pathways of nuclear transport exist for cell surface receptors. This finding provides a new direction for investigating the trafficking mechanisms of various nuclear RTKs.