快速老化鼠脑MT1和MT3cDNA克隆及mRNA定量条件的建立

金属硫蛋白（Metellothionein,MT)基因家族的三种亚型MT1、MT2和MT3在脑组织中均有表达,它们在脑组织中具有重要的神经生理和神经调节功能,其中MT3可能是老年性痴呆（Alzheimer's disease,AD)潜在的病因学因子,本研究以快速老化鼠SAMP10脑组织总RNA为模板,通过RT-PCR扩增出MT1的编码区序列和MT33′非翻译区序列的cDNA片段。将两个片段克隆到pGEM-TEasy载体上,经测序分析确定两个cDNA片段分别为MT1编码区序列和MT33′非翻译区序列,Northern杂交结果表明,MT1和MT3mRNA在2、4、6、8四个月龄的SAMP10和SAMR1脑组织中均有表达。同时建立了MTmRNA的定量条件,为进一步研究MTmRNA增龄性变化规律及与老年性痴呆病因学的关系奠定了基础。     

凡纳滨对虾MT基因序列及其在卵巢发育和低温胁迫中的表达分析

在低温处理仔虾全长cDNA文库的筛选测序中, 获得凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannmei)金属硫蛋白基因全长cDNA序列, 该序列含有425个碱基, 包含177 bp开放阅读框, 上游98 bp的非编码区及下游150 bp 的非编码区, 编码58个氨基酸, 其中半胱氨酸含量丰富, 富含金属硫蛋白典型的Cys-X(1-3)-Cys 结构。多序列比对表明, 凡纳滨对虾MT蛋白序列与美洲螯龙虾(Homarus americanus)MT蛋白序列具最高同源性72.4%。Real-time PCR结果表明, 凡纳滨对虾MT基因在卵巢组织中呈优势表达, 在不同发育期的卵巢中的表达量都很高, 在低温处理凡纳滨对虾肝胰腺组织中上调表达。实验所得结果为研究凡纳滨对虾金属硫蛋白基因在生殖发育和低温应激中的功能提供了参考。       

鸡二价金属转运蛋白1 cDNA的克隆与序列分析

鸡二价金属转运蛋白1（divalent metal transporter 1, DMT1）在动物胃肠道锰吸收过程中起重要作用.根据哺乳动物Dmt1同源蛋白氨基酸序列的保守性设计引物,应用3′RACE(rapid amplification of cDNA ends)技术,扩增并克隆获得鸡小肠Dmt1 cDNA 3′端1 289bp和1 092bp的2种片段,发现其3′端翻译区和非翻译区存在差异. 根据鸡Dmt1 cDNA 3′端片段的测序结果设计引物,扩增获得1个与3′端片段部分重叠的鸡Dmt1 cDNA 5′端907 bp片段,并对其进行了克隆测序. 根据鸡小肠Dmt1 3′RACE片段和5′RACE片段序列信息进行拼接,从而获得鸡小肠Dmt1 cDNA全序列信息.结果表明,鸡小肠Dmt1 cDNA有2种形式,1种全长为1 972个核苷酸,其中5′非翻译区为104个核苷酸,编码区1 695个核苷酸,3′非翻译区为173个核苷酸,编码1个含564个氨基酸残基的蛋白质;另1种形式为1 775个核苷酸,其中5′非翻译区为104个核苷酸,编码区1 593个核苷酸,3′非翻译区为78个核苷酸,编码1个含530个氨基酸残基的蛋白质.据鸡Dmt1 cDNA推测出的2种形式蛋白质的氨基酸序列与人、大鼠和小鼠的Dmt1蛋白具有高度同源性,它们的同源性分别为82%、82%、80%,和 84%、84%、83%. 对推测氨基酸序列进行疏水性和跨膜区分析表明,Dmt1蛋白为1种跨膜整合蛋白,具有膜转运蛋白糖基化位点和底物结合位点的保守序列.     

柽柳金属硫蛋白基因的克隆及序列分析

用木麻黄(Casuarina glauca)的金属硫蛋白基因(metallothionein 1)氨基酸序列对柽柳ESTs序列本地数据库进行tBlastn检索,获得了柽柳金属硫蛋白基因全长cDNA序列,去除polyA后该基因全长366 bp,其中5′非翻译区97 bp,3′非翻译区59 bp,开放读码框(ORF)长210 bp,编码70 个氨基酸组成的多肽,蛋白分子量为6.793 kD,理论等电点为4.99,含10个Cys,集中分布在肽链的N端和C端。BlastP同源性分析表明该基因与花生同源性最高,与小豆同源性最低。该基因的EST序列在GenBank登录(登录号：CV792539)。     

菊芋类金属硫蛋白基因htMT2的克隆及其表达特征分析

从菊芋 (HelianthustuberosusL .)块茎cDNA文库中得到了一个新的植物类金属硫蛋白基因htMT2的cDNA序列 ,全长 5 0 9bp ,包括 2 4 0bp的开放阅读框、6 2bp的 5′端非翻译区、2 0 7bp的 3′端非翻译区。通过PCR获得了 2个htMT2编码区的部分基因组片段htMTG_1及htMTG_2 ,长度分别为 986bp和 982bp。分析表明两个基因组片段均包含 3个外显子及 2个内含子 ,编码一个由 79个氨基酸残基组成的多肽 ,与从htMT2推测的多肽完全一致 ,该多肽具有植物类金属硫蛋白的典型结构特征 ,N端及C端结构域富含Cys ,分别具有 8个和 7个Cys残基 ,上述两个结构域被一个无Cys的中间区分开。Southern杂交结果表明 ,htMT2在菊芋基因组中以小基因家族的形式存在。Northern杂交结果表明htMT2在叶片、叶柄、茎及块茎中均有表达 ,在茎中有较高水平的表达 ,但在根中未检测到杂交信号。经Cu2 处理后 ,htMT2在茎中的表达量显著降低。与其他 2型金属硫蛋白的序列同源性比较及htMT2对金属离子处理的反应均表明 ,htMT2是一种新的植物类金属硫蛋白基因。     

星星草cDNA文库构建和金属硫蛋白(MT-1)基因的克隆

以受NaHCO3胁迫后的星星草叶片组织为材料构建了cDNA文库,文库的初始滴度为2.0×106pfu,重组率为95%,平均插入片段长度为0.8kb,扩增后文库的滴度为4.0×109pfu.mL-1.文库克隆随机测序获得了星星草的金属硫蛋白(MT-1)基因的全长cDNA序列,显示文库中含有一定量的全长基因.MT-1基因全长622bp,其中5'非翻译区57 bp,3'非翻译区343 bp,开放读码框长222 bp,编码73个氨基酸,氨基酸序列中具有植物MT-1蛋白特有的金属响应元件(MRE)序列,MT-1蛋白的分子量为7.814 kD,理论等电点为4.72.     

菊芋类金属硫蛋白基因htMT2的克隆及其表达特征分析

从菊芋(Helianthus tuberosus L.)块茎cDNA文库中得到了一个新的植物类金属硫蛋白基因htMT2的cDNA序列,全长509 bp,包括240 bp的开放阅读框、62 bp的5′端非翻译区、207 bp的3′端非翻译区.通过PCR获得了2个htMT2编码区的部分基因组片段htMTG-1及htMTG-2,长度分别为986 bp和982 bp.分析表明两个基因组片段均包含3个外显子及2个内含子,编码一个由79个氨基酸残基组成的多肽,与从htMT2推测的多肽完全一致,该多肽具有植物类金属硫蛋白的典型结构特征,N端及C端结构域富含Cys,分别具有8个和7个Cys残基,上述两个结构域被一个无Cys的中间区分开.Southern杂交结果表明,htMT2在菊芋基因组中以小基因家族的形式存在.Northern杂交结果表明htMT2在叶片、叶柄、茎及块茎中均有表达,在茎中有较高水平的表达,但在根中未检测到杂交信号.经Cu2+处理后,htMT2在茎中的表达量显著降低.与其他2型金属硫蛋白的序列同源性比较及htMT2对金属离子处理的反应均表明,htMT2是一种新的植物类金属硫蛋白基因.     

优雅蝈螽水溶性和类膜结合型海藻糖酶编码cDNA的鉴定及其在体内的表达

海藻糖酶是一种二糖水解酶,催化海藻糖转换为葡萄糖,为昆虫包括发育、壳多糖合成及飞翔代谢在内的多种生理过程所必需。尽管某些昆虫的海藻糖酶基因已被鉴定,但优雅蝈螽的海藻糖酶编码序列尚未见报告。本研究采用RACE结合多重PCR技术,分离鉴定优雅蝈螽的水溶性海藻糖酶（GgTre1）和类膜结合型海藻糖酶（GgTre2-like）的全长编码序列（cDNA）,包括携带不同长度3′-非翻译区（3′-UTR）的3个GgTre1 cDNA 亚型（GenBank：No.KY400001-KY400003）和3个GgTre2-like cDNA 亚型（GenBank：No.KY400004-KY400006）。 3个GgTre1 cDNA序列分别为2 107,2 021和1 914 bp,具有相同长度的5′-UTR（33 bp）,但3′-UTR 长度不同,分别为322,248和129 bp。GgTre1-2 cDNA含1 740 bp,编码579 个氨基酸残基组成的多肽链,分子量为67.29 kD;与之不同,根据cDNA演绎的GgTre1-1和GgTre1-3序列较GgTre1-2多4个氨基酸残基,多肽链的分子量为67.88 kD。3个GgTre2-like cDNA（GgTre2-like-1,-2和-3）序列全长分别为2 491,2 460 和2 381 bp。5′-UTR 均为284 bp,3′-UTR 分别为398,367和285 bp。GgTre2-like cDNA开阅读框为1 809 bp,编码602 氨基酸残基组成的多肽链,分子量为67.88 kD。实时定量PCR, 分析GgTre1和GgTre2-like基因在雌、雄个体（各20个）的组织特异性表达。结果显示,GgTre1 在卵巢和附腺表达量最高;GgTre2-like 主要在卵巢表达,在雄性肌肉和马氏管的表达量高于其他组织。上述结果表明,本研究从优雅蝈螽分离到3′-UTR长度不同的3个水溶性和3个类膜结合型海藻糖酶cDNA序列。结果还提示,GgTre1 在各组织的表达差异较大,而GgTre2-like 在各组织的表达相对稳定。不同长度3′-UTR的GgTre1 和 GgTre2-like 亚型的存在,以及不同长度的3′-UTR在翻译过程中的特殊作用,尚待今后研究证实。     

牦牛MT-I/-Ⅱ cDNA分子克隆及其蛋白质结构分析

利用基因特异引物YMTSP1和YMTSP2,通过RT-PCR从牦牛肝脏组织RNA中克隆出了牦牛MT-Ⅰ(Genbank Accession NoAY513744)和MT-Ⅱ(Genbank Accession NoAY513745)基因编码区全长.将牦牛MT-Ⅰ和MT-Ⅱ cDNA序列在CBI上进行同源性搜索发现,牦牛MT-Ⅰ/-Ⅱ编码区序列在不同哺乳动物中相当保守.牦牛MT-Ⅰ和MT-Ⅱ编码的MT-Ⅰ和MT-Ⅱ蛋白分别由61个氨基酸组成,其具有保守的短肽结构如C-X-C,C-C-X-C-C,C-X-X-C等,其决定MT蛋白分子的整个三维结构,在分子进化上十分保守.同时对牦牛MT的疏水性和跨膜区分析表明,牦牛MT蛋白可能不存在跨膜区,也不存在信号肽,是1种非分泌蛋白.并通过同源比较模建,预测和构建了牦牛MT-Ⅰ和MT-Ⅱ蛋白的分子空间结构,表明牦牛MT-Ⅰ和MT-Ⅱ由α-和β-两个结构域组成,在α-结构域含有5个Cys短肽结构,β-结构域有4个Cys短肽结构,且2个结构域由保守的三肽序列KKS相连.     

镉中毒大鼠睾丸与肝脏金属硫蛋白表达的时相研究

啮齿目动物睾丸对镉毒性较肝脏更敏感.为阐明睾丸的镉毒性分子机制,比较了肝脏与睾丸金属硫蛋白（MT）表达的时相变化.mRNA采用RT-PCR技术分析并用光密度扫描定量;蛋白质定量用ELISA方法.结果显示,睾丸中存在MT,镉中毒后MT1与MT2 mRNA明显升高,但MT没有相应增加;肝脏镉中毒后MTmRNA与MT均明显升高.结果提示：镉虽然能诱导睾丸MTmRNA的转录,但没有促进其MT的合成,这可能是睾丸对镉毒性与致癌作用较肝脏更敏感的重要原因.     

金属硫蛋白(Metallothionein,MT)基因在转基因领域的应用

MT丰富的巯基含量及重金属结合能力决定了它功能方面的多样性。本文综述了其高效可诱导性的启动子及其富含半胱氨酸的结构基因在细胞分子生物学,医学,农业及环保方面的转基因的应用及其发展过程。并对其在疾病诊断,环境保护等方面的前景进行了探讨。     

Enhancement of MT synthesis by leptin in fasted mice

It is known that metallothionein (MT) synthesis occurs in the liver in various stressful situations such as immobilization and fasting. However, the mechanism of MT synthesis in stressful situations is not fully understood. In this study, we examined the involvement of leptin, the obese gene product, in MT synthesis induced by fasting stress. Despite an increase in hepatic MT levels induced by 24-hr fasting in wild-type mice, both wild-type and MT-null mice showed decreases in plasma leptin levels after 24 hr of fasting. Hepatic MT levels increased to levels comparable with that in control mice in ICR, C3H, 129Sv and Balb/c mice fasted for 24 hr, and plasma leptin levels decreased significantly. Repetition of fasting and feeding in turn every 24 hr caused a gradual decrease in hepatic MT levels after the fasting period. In contrast, the reduced plasma leptin levels increased after the fasting period with repetition of fasting-feeding cycles. The findings indicate that there is an adaptation to starvation. On the other hand, subcutaneous leptin infusion in fasted mice via an osmotic pump resulted in increases in hepatic MT levels compared to the levels in vehicle-treated mice after 24 hr of fasting. Only leptin infusion had no effect on hepatic MT levels. These results suggest that MT synthesis in fasting stress is not correlated with decrease in plasma leptin levels but that leptin itself is a potent inducer of MT in a fasting situation.     

航天对MT工程菌株的影响研究

为了探讨航天与常规诱变技术对MT工程菌株的影响,进行了HNO2.UV、γ-射线、LiCl及γ-射线 LiCl分别与航天共诱变对MT工程菌株活性的影响试验,并且就航天对MT工程菌株的致死作用及质粒的稳定性进行了研究。结果表明:MT工程菌株经航天处理后,活菌数降低,死亡率为34.59%,航天对MT工程菌株具有一定的致死作用;MT工程菌株经UV、γ-射线、LiCl及γ-射线 LiCl分别与航天共诱变处理后的生长活性没有改变,MT工程菌株经HNO2与航天共诱变处理后的生长速率减慢;在航天处理的作用下,MT工程菌株的质粒不易丢失,能够维持很好的稳定性,丢失率仅为8.26%,而置于地面的MT工程菌株的质粒易丢失,丢失率为83.51%。     

Expression, purification and preliminary characterization of mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) metallothionein MT20

Metallothioneins are rather ubiquitous metal-binding proteins induced by stressing or physiological stimuli. Two major metallothionein isoforms have been identified in mussel: MT10 and MT20. Nevertheless the high sequence homology, the two isoforms exhibit different expression and inducibility in vivo. We cloned and produced in Escherichia coli the MT20 isoform from Mytilus galloprovincilis. cDNA was subcloned into pGEX-6P.1 vector, in frame with a sequence encoding a glutathione-S-transferase (GST) tail. Recombinant protein was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity by affinity chromatography. After enzymatic cleavage of the GST tail the MT moiety was recovered with a final yield of about 5 mg of protein per litre of bacterial culture. The metal-binding ability of MT20 was assessed by absorption spectroscopy upon addition of cadmium equivalents and the metal release was checked as a function of the environment pH. Moreover the protein was analysed for the propensity to polymerization, typical of this class of protein, before and after exposure to reducing and alkylating agents.     

Zinc-induced upregulation of metallothionein (MT)-2A is predicted by gene expression of zinc transporters in healthy adults

The usefulness of zinc transporter and metallothionein (MT) gene expressions to detect changes in zinc intake remains unclear. This pilot study aimed to determine the effects of zinc supplementation on zinc transporter and MT gene expressions in humans. Healthy adults (n = 39) were randomised to zinc treatment (ZT), receiving 22 mg Zn/day (n = 19), or no treatment (NT) (n = 20). Blood samples were collected on Days 0, 2, 7, 14, and 21. Plasma zinc and serum C-reactive protein concentrations were analysed. Gene expression of zinc transporters and MT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was analysed using real-time PCR. Using repeated-measures ANOVA, MT-2A gene expression and fold change were found to be higher in the ZT group (P = 0.025 and P = 0.016, respectively) compared to the NT group, specifically at Day 2 (40 ± 18 % increase from baseline, P = 0.011), despite no significant increase in plasma zinc concentration. In a multiple regression model exploring the changes in gene expressions between Days 0 and 21, the change in MT-2A gene expression was correlated with changes in all zinc transporter expressions (r² = 0.54, P = 0.029); the change in ZIP1 expression emerged as a univariate predictor (P = 0.003). Dietary zinc intake was predictive of zinc transporter and MT expressions (P = 0.030). Physical activity level was positively correlated with baseline ZIP7 expression (r = 0.36, P = 0.029). The present study shows that MT-2A expression is related to changing expression of zinc transporter genes, specifically ZIP1, in response to zinc supplementation. The current report adds to our understanding of MT in the coordinated nature of cellular zinc homeostasis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12263-015-0494-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

MT2A对脂多糖介导的人肺毛细血管内皮细胞损伤的保护作用

目的:探索不同浓度的金属硫蛋2A(Metallothionein 2A, MT2A)对脂多糖(Lipopolysaccharid, LPS)介导的人肺微血管内皮细胞损伤的保护作用。方法:培养人肺毛细血管内皮细胞株(Human lung microvascular endothelial cells, HPMVECs),经过一定浓度LPS溶液进行刺激后,利用不同浓度的MT2A与对照组共同培养,一段时间后观察炎性介质IL-6、TNF-α释放的量及荧光显微镜观察组HPMVECs骨架形态变化。结果:各组TNF-α浓度均在0 h最低,随之逐渐升高,到6 h达到高峰;从各时间点来看,除0 h各组TNF-α浓度无显著差异外(F=0.717, P=0.549),其余各时间点B1、B2、B3均显著高于A组(均P0.05)。各组中IL-6浓度均在0 h最低,A组在2 h达到高峰,随后逐渐下降;B1组在4 h达到高峰,随之下降;B2、B3组从0 h开始逐渐升高,到6 h达到峰值;从各时间点来看,除0 h各处理因素无显著差异外(F=2.341, P=0.092),其余各时间点B1、B2、B3均低于A组(均P0.05)。A组6 h小时后纤维状肌动蛋白(F-actin)明显解聚,分布明显减少,应力纤维排列紊乱或者消失;B1组、B2组、B3组6 h小时后,与A组相比,F-actin的分布明显较多,应力纤维排列较为整齐。结论:LPS刺激人肺毛细血管内皮细胞有明显损伤效应,加入MT2A后细胞相关炎性因子释放量、细胞骨架损伤情况明显减轻,表明一定浓度的MT2A对LPS介导的肺毛细血管损伤有明显保护作用。     

Determination of the serum metallothionein (MT)1/2 concentration in patients with Wilson's disease and Menkes disease

We have developed an easy and specific enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) for the simultaneous determination of serum metallothinein-1 (MT-1) and 2 (MT-2) in both humans and experimental animals. A competitive ELISA was established using a specific polyclonal antibody against rat MT-2. The antibody used for this ELISA had exhibited the same cross-reactivity with MT in humans and experimental animals. The NH₂ terminal peptide of MT containing acetylated methionine was shown to be the epitope of this antibody. The reactivity of this ELISA system with the liver, kidney and brain in MT1/2 knock-out mice was significantly low, but was normal in an MT-3 knock-out mouse. The lowest detection limit of this ELISA was 0.6 ng/ml and the spiked MT-1was fully recovered from the plasma.We investigated the normal range of MT1/2 (25–75%tile) in 200 healthy human serum and found it to be 27–48 ng/ml, and this was compared with the serum levels in various liver diseases. The serum MT1/2 levels in chronic hepatitis C (HCV) patients were significantly lower than healthy controls and also other liver diseases. In the chronic hepatitis cases, the MT1/I2 levels increased gradually, followed by the progression of the disease to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. In particular, we found significantly elevated MT1/2 plasma levels in Wilson's disease patients, levels which were very similar to those in the Long–Evans Cinnamon (LEC) rat (model animal of Wilson's disease). Furthermore, a significantly elevated MT1/2 level was found in patients with Menkes disease, an inborn error of copper metabolism such as Wilson's disease.     

硒与金属硫蛋白及对小鼠肝损伤的防护作用研究

应用蛋白质芯片和RT-PCR技术研究硒对小鼠肝脏金属硫蛋白（Metallothionein, MT）的诱导表达;以蛋白质芯片技术为主要实验手段研究CCl4诱导的小鼠肝脏损伤后血清及肝脏蛋白质图谱变化,寻找小鼠血清及肝脏组织损伤标志物,同时观察有机硒(麦硒康,Organ-Se)对损伤的防护作用,结果表明与对照组相比给予有机硒后的小鼠肝脏MT表达明显;比较肝损伤组及用药组（Organ-Se）组的血清及组织蛋白质表达图谱变化,发现血清中存在3个具有统计学意义的标志物：5062.5Da 、5566.5Da、6358.5Da;肝脏组织中有4个具有统计学意义的标志物：5449.6Da、7131.5Da、9903.2Da和10767.3Da;与损伤组相比预先保护组（Organ-Se）的血清及肝脏标志物的表达水平接近正常组。本实验表明非金属元素硒,尤其是有机硒同金属元素（如锌）一样,能够有效诱导MT的表达,为今后进一步开展硒代金属硫蛋白的机制研究奠定了基础;同时在对小鼠肝损伤保护的研究中发现,有机硒具有明显的肝损伤保护作用,是一种较有前途的值得开发的肝损伤防护药。     

Spectroscopic characterization of a fruit-specific metallothionein: M. acuminata MT3

Metallothioneins (MTs) are ubiquitous low molecular mass, cysteine-rich proteins with the ability to bind d¹⁰ metal ions in the form of metal-thiolate clusters. In contrast to the vertebrate forms, knowledge about the properties of members of the plant metallothionein family is still scarce. The amino acid sequences of plant MTs are distinctively different to the sequences of other MT species. The protein under investigation, Musa acuminata (banana) MT3, belongs to the plant MT fruit-specific p3 subfamily. With a total of 10 cysteine residues, MT3 features a cysteine content and percentage that is more comparable to fungal and prokaryotic MTs than to the well characterized mammalian iso-forms. The gene sequence encoding MT3 was cloned into a suitable vector and the protein was recombinantly overexpressed in Escherichia coli. MT3 is able to coordinate a maximum of four divalent d¹⁰ metal ions under the formation of metal-thiolate clusters. The hitherto unknown spectroscopic behavior of MT3 in combination with the metal ions Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg²⁺ will be presented and gives rise to the existence of a weaker metal ion coordination site. The pH stability of the investigated zinc and cadmium clusters is comparable to the values found for other plant metallothioneins though significantly lower than for the mammalian iso-forms. Possible metal-thiolate cluster structures will additionally be discussed.     

Copper ions and the regulation ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae metallothionein genes under aerobic and anaerobic conditions

We have previously reported that theSaccharomyces cerevisiae CRS5 metallothionein gene is negatively regulated by oxygen. The mechanism of this repression was the focus of the current study. We observed that the aerobic repression ofCRS5 is rapid and occurs within minutes of exposing anaerobic cultures to air. Furthermore, theCUP1 metallothionein gene ofS. cerevisiae was found to be subject to a similar down-regulation of gene expression. We provide evidence that the aerobic repression of yeast metallothioneins involves copper ions and Ace1, the coppertrans-activator ofCUP1 andCRS5 gene expression. A functional Ace1 binding site was found to be necessary for the aerobic repression ofCRS5. Moreover, the aerobic down-regulation of the metallothioneins was abolished when cells were treated with elevated levels of copper. Our studies show that anaerobic cultures accumulate higher levels of copper than do aerobic cells and that this copper is rapidly lost when cells are exposed to air. In fact, the kinetics of this copper loss closely parallels the kinetics ofCUP1 andCRS5 gene repression. The yeast metallothionein genes, therefore, serve as excellent markers for variations in copper accumulation and homeostasis that occur in response to changes in the oxidative status of the cell.