内含肽在构建亲和纯化系统中的应用

内含肽是前体未成熟蛋白中的一段具有自我剪接功能的多肽链,在蛋白质纯化、蛋白质连接、环肽制备、蛋白标记以及生物传感器等方面广泛应用。本文综述了内含肽应用于蛋白质亲和纯化的发展历程,分别对层析型和非层析型内含肽纯化体系进行了分析和讨论,并总结了对控制内含肽断裂反应所进行的研究,为进一步改善内含肽介导蛋白质纯化提供依据和线索。     

内含肽介导的生物学效应及其应用

蛋白质翻译产物在成熟过程中剪切释放出来的一段氨基酸序列称为“intein”---即内含肽。它与前体蛋白以框内融合的形式共同翻译,并内嵌于前体蛋白序列中。内含肽的解离以及内含肽两侧氨基酸序列的连接是在内含肽自身催化作用下完成的。本文将从内含肽的发现、结构特征和作用机理等方面对这种具有特殊意义的蛋白质成熟机制进行较为全面的论述,同时介绍了近年来发展起来的以内含肽介导的蛋白质剪接为基础的蛋白质纯化和改造技术。     

微生物内含肽在基因治疗中的应用

蛋白质内含肽是存在于前体蛋白质中的一段多肽,依靠蛋白质自剪接这一特殊机制从前体蛋白中释放出来,并且使两侧的蛋白质外显肽连接成为成熟的蛋白质。本文就内含肽在基因治疗方面的研究做一综述。     

新型断裂内含肽介导的可控性C端断裂

内含肽介导的蛋白质断裂被广泛地应用于蛋白质纯化、连接和环化. 但目前的方法都是用传统的连续的内含肽来介导蛋白质断裂反应,因而往往存在自发性断裂、产率低等问题. 本实验选择3个S1型新型断裂内含肽Ter ThyX、Ssp GryB和Rma DnaB来实现蛋白质断裂反应的可控性. 在可控性C端断裂反应中,S1型断裂内含肽的C端片段（IC ）与硫氧还蛋白（T）融合作为前体蛋白,加入化学合成的Ssp DnaB S1型断裂内含肽 的N端小肽与二硫苏糖醇（DTT）共同诱导C端断裂反应.结果表明,该小肽可以诱导这 3个不同的S1型断裂内含肽的前体蛋白发生C端断裂反应. 该方法为利用内含肽C端断 裂介导的蛋白质纯化提供了更多的选择,并为内含肽的结构与功能的关系研究提供-有用的线索.     

Split内含肽高效介导转录激活因子的胞内融合

Sprit内含肽可以通过反式剪接作用介导两个蛋白片段的共价连接．基于这一原理,利用来自于Synechocystis sp．strain PCC6803的天然sprit内含肽DnaEs作为蛋白剪接元件,通过其反式剪接作用介导了四环素阻遏蛋白（TetR）与1-型单纯疱疹病毒（HSV）的转录活化域（VP16）的共价连接,形成融合蛋白TV．应用RT-PCR技术以及荧光显微镜成像技术分别在mRNA转录水平与蛋白表达水平上研究了DnaEs的剪接活性,结果证明在细胞内DnaEs可以介导融合蛋白TV的产生．同时也对融合蛋白TV的转录活性进行了研究,并将其与通过重组DNA表达得到的同种蛋白的转录活性进行了比较,发现DnaEs介导的融合蛋白与基因重组得到的同种蛋白转录活性相似．此外,还研究了四环素类似物Dox对TV转录活性的调控,结果表明Dox可以明显抑制其转录活性．DnaEs介导转录激活因子融合,并启动下游报告基因表达的实验方法,为深入开展DnaEs的应用研究提供了重要实验依据．     

蛋白质剪接研究进展

蛋白质剪接是一个翻译后自催化加工过程,它不需要酶或其他辅助因子的参与。在这个过程中,前体蛋白的Intein(内含肽)被切离,其两侧的Extein(外显肽)连接在一起。Intein按结构可分为经典Intein和微型Intein,其中的经典Intein包括Hint结构域和中间的归巢内切酶结构域(该结构域在微型内含肽中不存在)。蛋白质剪接及其他具有Hint结构域的蛋白加工过程的起始步骤是N-S/O酰基重排反应,该反应是由Hint结构域催化的;Intein的剪接还分为顺式剪接和反式剪接,通过对Intein进行改造,可以阻断剪接过程,但不影响N端肽键或C端肽键的断裂;通过筛选突变体,可以获得温度敏感型、pH敏感型或小分子诱导型的内含肽。这些研究促进了Intein在多肽制备及其它方面的应用。     

蛋白质剪接及其在蛋白质工程中的应用

蛋白质剪接是蛋白质内含肽介导的,一种在蛋白质水平上翻译后的加工过程,它由一系列分子内的剪切-连接反应组成。蛋白质内含肽是一个蛋白质前体中的多肽序列,可以催化自身从蛋白质前体中断裂,使两侧的蛋白质外显肽连接成成熟的蛋白质。蛋白质内含肽的发现,不仅丰富了遗传信息翻译后加工的理论,在实践中也有广泛的应用前景。Abstract: Protein splicing , which is an intein mediated posttranslational processing, involves a series of intramolecular cleavage-ligation reactions. Intein is an intervening polypeptide which can catalytic self-cleavage from a pre-protein accompanied by the concomitant joining of the two flanking polypeptides (the extein) through a peptide bond. Protein splicing not only enriches genetic theory of posttranslational processing, but also have wide application prospect.     

断裂型内含肽在蛋白生产和生物工程中的应用

蛋白反式剪接是蛋白翻译后修饰的一种特殊机制,这一反应由断裂型内含肽自我催化完成,不需要酶和其他因子参与。与常规顺式的蛋白剪接不同的是,反式剪接是基于断裂型内含肽由N端和C端这两段多肽的高亲和力,精准地构建成一个具有剪接活性的内含肽蛋白质。反式剪接已被发展成新的生物技术应用于生产环化蛋白、构建蛋白定点与定时表达的载体和转基因植物,以及改造cDNA文库技术等。     

异源生物中筛选高剪接活性Intein系统的建立

原始物种体内蛋白质内含子（intein）介导的自催化蛋白剪接反应以100%效率进行.当这些蛋白质内含子被克隆入异源物种时,其剪接效率往往大大降低,绝大多数甚至完全失去剪接能力.本研究根据蛋白质内含子剪接活性与蛋白质外显子（extein）C端第1个保守氨基酸直接相关的特点,设计含有所有这些保守氨基酸的多个短的蛋白质外显子序列,通过PCR引入到卡那霉素抗性蛋白（KanR）的不同位点中,在此外显子中克隆入相应的蛋白质内含子,构建在大肠杆菌中依赖卡那霉素抗性来筛选高剪接活性蛋白质内含子的系统.结果显示,卡那霉素平板上菌落生长的结果与Western印迹检测的结果基本一致.说明建立的筛选高剪接活性蛋白质内含子系统成功.这种含有可选择蛋白质外显子的筛选系统,将蛋白质剪接与卡那霉素抗性相结合,直接从平板上观测剪接结果,成为快速、稳定筛选在异源物种中具有剪接活性蛋白内含子的新手段.     

蛋白质内含肽及其生物学意义

蛋白质内含肽是存在于前体蛋白质中的一段多肽链,靠自我剪切的方式从前体蛋白中释放出来。蛋白质内含肽的发现,不仅在理论上丰富了遗传信息翻译后加工的内容,而且在实践上有重大的生物学意义,特别是在蛋白质纯化方面有着广泛的应用前景。本文就蛋白质内含肽的发现、特征、鉴定、剪接机制及其生物学意义作一概述。     

Analysis of complex protein-polypeptide systems for proteomic studies

Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE), followed by protein extraction and characterization with chemical sequencing or mass spectrometry (MS), is the most commonly used method to analyze complex protein systems such as cells and organelles. However, it is claimed that 2-D PAGE is a slow and labor-intensive technique and also needs subsequent efforts for one-by-one identification of proteins. Recently, the combined methods of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR) mass spectrometry, with preceding separation techniques such as capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF) or liquid chromatography, have been demonstrated as high-throughput techniques suitable for proteomic analysis of protein systems. The studies which employ FTICR MS, aimed at the analysis of complex protein systems, have been reviewed, comparing their performance with that of 2-D PAGE. Also, the possibilities of combining 2-D PAGE and the FTICR MS method to analyze and reconstruct the structures and functions of complex systems are discussed.     

Biophysical characterization of the complex between human papillomavirus E6 protein and synapse-associated protein 97

The E6 protein of human papillomavirus (HPV) exhibits complex interaction patterns with several host proteins, and their roles in HPV-mediated oncogenesis have proved challenging to study. Here we use several biophysical techniques to explore the binding of E6 to the three PDZ domains of the tumor suppressor protein synapse-associated protein 97 (SAP97). All of the potential binding sites in SAP97 bind E6 with micromolar affinity. The dissociation rate constants govern the different affinities of HPV16 and HPV18 E6 for SAP97. Unexpectedly, binding is not mutually exclusive, and all three PDZ domains can simultaneously bind E6. Intriguingly, this quaternary complex has the same apparent hydrodynamic volume as the unliganded PDZ region, suggesting that a conformational change occurs in the PDZ region upon binding, a conclusion supported by kinetic experiments. Using NMR, we discovered a new mode of interaction between E6 and PDZ: a subset of residues distal to the canonical binding pocket in the PDZ(2) domain exhibited noncanonical interactions with the E6 protein. This is consistent with a larger proportion of the protein surface defining binding specificity, as compared with that reported previously.     

Biological synthesis of circular polypeptides

Here, we review the use of different biochemical approaches for biological synthesis of circular or backbone-cyclized proteins and peptides. These methods allow the production of circular polypeptides either in vitro or in vivo using standard recombinant DNA expression techniques. Protein circularization can significantly impact protein engineering and research in protein folding. Basic polymer theory predicts that circularization should lead to a net thermodynamic stabilization of a folded protein by reducing the entropy associated with the unfolded state. Protein cyclization also provides a valuable tool for exploring the effects of topology on protein folding kinetics. Furthermore, the biological production of cyclic polypeptides makes possible the production of cyclic polypeptide libraries. The generation of such libraries, which was previously restricted to the domain of synthetic chemists, now offers biologists access to highly diverse and stable molecular libraries for probing protein structure and function.     

Printing of protein microarrays via a capillary-free fluid jetting mechanism

Current proteomics experiments rely upon printing techniques such as ink jet, pin, or quill arrayers that were developed for the creation of cDNA microarrays. These techniques often do not meet the requirements needed for successful spotting of proteins to perform high-throughput, array-based proteomic profiling. Biological laser printing (BioLP) is a spotting technology that does not rely on solid pins, quill pins, or capillary-based fluidics. The non-contact mechanism of BioLP utilizes a focused laser pulse to transfer protein solutions, thereby eliminating the potential for orifice clogging, air bubbles, and unnecessary volume loss potentially encountered in commercially available spotting technologies. The speed and spot-to-spot reproducibility of BioLP is comparable to other techniques, while the minimum spot diameter and volume per printed droplet is significantly less at 30 microm and approximately 500 fL, respectively. The transfer of fluid by BioLP occurs through a fluid jetting mechanism, as observed by high-speed images of the printing process. Arraying a solution of BSA with subsequent immunodetection demonstrates the reproducible spotting of protein in an array format with CVs of <3%. Printing of the enzyme alkaline phosphatase followed by a positive reaction with a colorimetric substrate demonstrates that functional protein can be spotted using this laser-based printer.     

Methodologies for target selection in structural genomics

As the number of complete genomes that have been sequenced keeps growing, unknown areas of the protein space are revealed and new horizons open up. Most of this information will be fully appreciated only when the structural information about the encoded proteins becomes available. The goal of structural genomics is to direct large-scale efforts of protein structure determination, so as to increase the impact of these efforts. This review focuses on current approaches in structural genomics aimed at selecting representative proteins as targets for structure determination. We will discuss the concept of representative structures/folds, the current methodologies for identifying those proteins, and computational techniques for identifying proteins which are expected to adopt new structural folds.     

Quality control for a large-scale study using protein arrays and protein beads to measure immune response in serum and plasma

We report on quality control performed in the context of a large-scale, multi-institutional study of the immune response in blood samples from prostate cancer patients. The measurements were performed by two commercially available techniques/services: protein arrays and an automated bead-based ELISA-like technique on 871 patient samples. The project started with a wide screen using standard arrays with 8302 protein sequences for 113 patients, followed by three studies using custom arrays with 215 selected protein sequences. These studies were followed up by three studies using the bead-based approach on 57 protein sequences chosen from the 215 selected before. We find similar responses in plasma and serum samples. Samples from the two European projects from which the samples originated also appeared comparable. In the data from the high-density standard arrays, we see for ～12% of the protein sequences high cross-correlation (R(2) > 0.8) with signals from unrelated protein sequences that are physically nearby on the array, suggesting production issues. The custom array and bead-based techniques both have good reproducibility, but the techniques do not agree with each other for ～50% of the protein sequences measured. We discuss the consequences of the observed data quality for the design and interpretation of the study.     

Small Oligomers of Ribulose-bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (Rubisco) Activase Are Required for Biological Activity

Ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) activase uses the energy from ATP hydrolysis to remove tight binding inhibitors from Rubisco, thus playing a key role in regulating photosynthesis in plants. Although several structures have recently added much needed structural information for different Rubisco activase enzymes, the arrangement of these subunits in solution remains unclear. In this study, we use a variety of techniques to show that Rubisco activase forms a wide range of structures in solution, ranging from monomers to much higher order species, and that the distribution of these species is highly dependent on protein concentration. The data support a model in which Rubisco activase forms an open spiraling structure rather than a closed hexameric structure. At protein concentrations of 1 μm, corresponding to the maximal activity of the enzyme, Rubisco activase has an oligomeric state of 2–4 subunits. We propose a model in which Rubisco activase requires at least 1 neighboring subunit for hydrolysis of ATP.     

Dimerization,Oligomerization, and Aggregation of Human Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Copper/Zinc Superoxide Dismutase 1 Protein Mutant Forms in Live Cells

More than 100 copper/zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) genetic mutations have been characterized. These mutations lead to the death of motor neurons in ALS. In its native form, the SOD1 protein is expressed as a homodimer in the cytosol. In vitro studies have shown that SOD1 mutations impair the dimerization kinetics of the protein, and in vivo studies have shown that SOD1 forms aggregates in patients with familial forms of ALS. In this study, we analyzed WT SOD1 and 9 mutant (mt) forms of the protein by non-invasive fluorescence techniques. Using microscopic techniques such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer, fluorescence complementation, image-based quantification, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we studied SOD1 dimerization, oligomerization, and aggregation. Our results indicate that SOD1 mutations lead to an impairment in SOD1 dimerization and, subsequently, affect protein aggregation. We also show that SOD1 WT and mt proteins can dimerize. However, aggregates are predominantly composed of SOD1 mt proteins.     

蛋白质体外进化建库技术研究

蛋白质体外进化技术是蛋白质工程发展的一个里程碑,也是改造蛋白质的一种有效工具。它不仅具有重要的应用价值,而且有助于蛋白质结构与功能的研究。通过蛋白质体外进化技术已成功地改造了许多蛋白质,有些已应用于工农业生产。体外进化技术分为两步:建库和筛选。本文主要对蛋白质体外进化策略及对体外随机突变技术、DNA重组技术、利用活细胞自身修复系统构建突变文库等几种定向进化突变文库建立技术进行了介绍与论述,同时还对蛋白质体外进化技术的应用及与其它学科结合的研究前景进行了分析,为获得具有改进功能或全新功能的蛋白质提供理论基础。