黑曲霉-矿物聚集体的形成及其分泌的多糖特性

【目的】为深入理解黑曲霉(Aspergillus niger)对含钾矿粉的风化作用,研究在旋转发酵方式下形成的黑曲霉-矿物聚集体及其多糖,并分析它们在含钾矿粉风化过程中的作用。【方法】采用不同组合培养基,研究黑曲霉-矿物聚集体的形成和形貌;联合紫外-可见分光光谱(UV-Vis)、傅立叶变换红外光谱(FT-IR)、气相色谱(GC)、电子扫描显微镜(SEM)、X射线能谱仪(EDS)等分析手段研究黑曲霉-矿物聚集体形成前后微环境中多糖的变化以及这种改变对风化产生的意义。【结果】黑曲霉菌丝与矿粉在多糖等代谢产物帮助下,通过相互缠绕、吸附、粘合等作用形成黑曲霉-矿物聚集体,聚集体形成前后多糖浓度和多糖结构均发生显著改变。【结论】含钾矿粉诱导黑曲霉多糖结构发生明显变化并且浓度增大,这种改变可促进多糖对矿物颗粒的吸附,有助于螯合金属离子和吸附水分子,从而为真菌有效利用矿物营养提供有利的微环境。     

两株溶磷真菌的筛选、鉴定及溶磷效果的评价

【目的】从作物根围土壤中筛选高效溶磷菌株。【方法】结合溶磷圈筛选法和钼锑抗比色法评价菌株的溶磷能力;利用菌株的形态学特性、培养性状和微管蛋白β-tubulin基因序列分析方法进行菌株的鉴定;采用气相色谱-质谱法(GC-MS)对溶磷菌的产酸物质进行分析;并用平板亲和性实验测定菌株间的兼容性。【结果】筛选得到2株高效溶磷菌株P1-1、P2-2;经鉴定,菌株P1-1为黑曲霉(Aspergillus niger),P2-2为塔宾曲霉(A.tubingensis)。2株溶磷菌株的产酸物质相同,均为草酸、葡萄糖酸、乳酸和甘油酸。这2株溶磷菌与杀线虫功能菌株淡紫拟青霉(Purpureocillium lilacinum)、橄榄色链霉菌(Streptomyces olivaceus)和苍白杆菌(Ochrobactrum pseudogrignonense)兼容性好。2菌株分别在Ca_3(PO_4)_2、Zn_3(PO_4)_2、羟基磷灰石为磷源的无机磷固体培养基中25°C培养5 d,测定溶磷圈的直径(D)与菌落直径(d),通过计算其比值D/d的大小对比,以及在Ca_3(PO_4)_2、Zn_3(PO_4)_2、羟基磷灰石为磷源的液体培养基中培养5 d,测定发酵液中有效磷含量进行比较后判定,这2株溶磷菌溶解磷的能力强且效果相当。【结论】获得了2株高效的溶磷真菌。它们能活化多种难溶性磷源,同时伴随挥发性酸性物质的产生;2个菌株与1组杀根结线虫微生物菌群兼容性均良好。     

一株岩石放线菌对碳酸钙形貌的影响北大核心CSCD

【目的】微生物诱导成矿是近年来地质微生物学领域研究中的热点之一。采用一株分离自喀斯特地区的岩生放线菌DHS C013^T菌株,研究该菌株及其代谢产物在由NaHCO3、Ca（NO3）2.4H2O组成的成矿体系中对CaCO3生成及形貌的影响。【方法】将在葡萄糖麦芽酵母提取物（MGYP）培养液中培养的放线菌上清液、菌丝球、发酵液以及无菌的MGYP培养液和超纯水分别加入成矿体系,SEM观察不同处理成矿体系中的底部沉淀物。【结果】在超纯水成矿体系中只形成标准菱面体方解石,而在添加放线菌及其代谢产物甚至含有机质的培养液则可形成形态各异的CaCO3晶体,如球形、哑铃以及表面具有鳞片状的柱形。这些特殊形态的CaCO3晶体的形成,可能是在放线菌的菌丝球和菌丝片段以及胞外分泌物上成核和逐渐生长的结果。【结论】放线菌菌丝体及代谢产物对调控和影响CaCO3的晶体形貌有重要作用。研究结果对进一步认识放线菌及其代谢产物诱导生物成矿提供了新的证据。     

过表达Na,K-ATPase基因增强了黑曲霉对硅灰石的风化能力

【目的】探究和证实黑曲霉钠钾ATP酶(NKA)在硅灰石风化过程中的作用。【方法】以野生型黑曲霉(WT)为原始菌株构建黑曲霉Na,K-ATPaseα1基因(NKAα1)高表达菌株oeNKA。通过测定不同时间点(0d、2d、4d、6d)oeNKA和WT生物量、培养液pH值和矿物风化释放的Ca~(2+)浓度,并用X-ray diffraction (XRD)对风化后的矿物残渣进行检测,比较oeNKA和WT菌株对硅灰石这种硅酸盐矿物的风化效果。【结果】oeNKA菌株的NKAα1基因相对表达量和酶活分别为WT菌株的103倍和1.76倍。在持续6d的培养过程中,oeNKA与WT的菌丝体生物量变化趋势相同,在培养第2天时WT显著高于oeNKA,随时间差异逐渐缩小并在第6天达到最低;培养液pH值变化趋势相同,分别下降至3.64和3.87;oeNKA风化硅灰石时所释放Ca~(2+)浓度(1011.36±47.78μg/g)约为WT (248.30±25.21μg/g)的4倍;XRD检测图谱显示菌株oeNKA对硅灰石风化作用更明显。【结论】NKAα1过表达菌株oeNKA对硅灰石的风化能力显著高于WT菌株,且黑曲霉的NKA与硅灰石的风化有密切关联。     

南大西洋中脊热液区异化铁还原微生物及其矿化产物分析

【目的】从深海热液区获取异化铁还原微生物(Dissimilatory iron reducing microorganisms,DIRM),分析其矿化速率和矿化产物,认识其参与的深海生物地球化学循环。【方法】以羟基氧化铁(FeOOH)为电子受体,以乙酸等简单有机物做电子供体,在60°C恒温厌氧条件下,对南大西洋中脊深海热液区硫化物样品中的DIRM进行富集、培养;采用扫描电镜(SEM)和透射电镜(TEM)、选区电子衍射(SAED)以及能谱仪(EDS)等方法对矿化产物进行形貌观察与成分分析。【结果】从2个硫化物样品中,共获得了139个铁还原培养物,它们均能将培养基中FeOOH (Fe3+90 mmol/L)转化为矿化产物。电镜下可见明显的晶体形态,以立方体形晶体为主,边长为5.0–20.0 nm;EDS分析表明,所有矿物晶体的主要元素为铁和氧,推测是由菱铁矿和磁铁矿组成的混合矿物。矿物晶体形成的时间差异较大,从3d到54d不等,多数培养物可在11 d到20 d内形成晶体。微生物多样性表明,培养物中优势菌主要为厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)和广古菌门(Euryarchaeota),包括一氧化碳胞菌(Carboxydocella)与脱硫肠状菌(Desulfotomaculum)近似新物种(16SrRNA基因同源性89%–91%)和广古菌地丸菌(Geoglobus)。【结论】热液区高温厌氧细菌与古菌可以利用简单有机物为电子供体进行铁还原,形成铁氧化物晶体。实验结果对于微生物参与铁元素的生物地球化学循环与矿物形成的潜力具有支持作用。然而它们是否参与了热液区铁元素的生物地球化学循环与矿物形成还需要大量研究工作验证。     

高产信号分子AI-2乳酸菌的筛选及其Pfs基因的克隆和表达

【目的】从锡盟地区酸马奶酒分离的乳酸菌中筛选出高产信号分子自体诱导物2(Autoinducer-2,AI-2)的乳酸菌,通过优化其重组蛋白Pfs的诱导条件体外合成信号分子AI-2。【方法】利用生物学发光法对不同乳酸菌产信号分子AI-2的产量进行比较,以高产信号分子AI-2乳酸菌基因组DNA为模板,扩增其S-腺苷高半胱氨酸核苷酶(S-adenosylhomocysteine nucleosidase,Pfs)基因,构建原核表达载体。利用异丙基-β-D-硫代吡喃半乳糖苷(IPTG)进行重组蛋白的诱导表达,通过优化培养基、诱导温度、诱导前菌体密度、IPTG浓度以及诱导时间得到高表达的Pfs蛋白,使其与底物作用最终体外合成信号分子AI-2。【结果】10株乳酸菌均可产信号分子AI-2,其中屎肠球菌8-3分泌信号分子AI-2的产量明显高于其他菌株;重组蛋白的最佳诱导条件为:选取SOC(Super optimal broth with catabolite repression)作为诱导表达培养基,菌液OD600为0.5–0.7时加入终浓度为0.1 mmol/L的IPTG,37°C诱导12 h;利用最优诱导条件获得了浓度为4.08 g/L的纯化Pfs蛋白,体外合成了信号分子AI-2。【结论】酸马奶酒中分离出的10株乳酸菌均可产生信号分子AI-2,且屎肠球菌8-3可通过Pfs基因的作用生成信号分子AI-2。     

黑曲霉N25株产植酸酶及酶促反应条件研究

从植物种子中研究筛选出高产植酸酶的黑曲霉N25,进行了最适液体培养基的筛选,研究了黑曲霉N25在玉米半合成液体培养基中所产植酸酶的最适酶促反应条件。结果表明：在四种培养基中,玉米半合成液体培养基为最适培养基,黑曲霉N25产植酸酶高峰期在96h,黑曲霉N25所产植酸酶的酶促反应最适pH为2.6和4.6,并具有很好的热稳定性,一定浓度的Ca^2 ,Mg^2 ,Mn^2 ,Cr^3 ,Li^ ,EDTA和高磷是植酸酶活性的抑制剂,1.0mmol/ml聚乙二醇1000,0.3nmol/mL Fe^2 和低磷对植酸酶活性具有激活作用。     

希瓦氏菌Shewallena oneidensis MR-1合成硒纳米棒

摘要:【目的】探索采用希瓦氏菌合成硒(Se)纳米棒,并阐明合成底物Se(IV)的浓度与细菌培养时间对生物合成的影响。【方法】将希瓦氏菌Shewallena oneidensis MR-1 接种至Luria-Bertani(LB)液体培养基,分别以Se(IV)浓度0.1、1、10和100 mmol/L的Na2 SO3作为电子受体,厌氧培养并绘制生长曲线。再将希瓦氏菌接种到含最适Se( IV)浓度的LB 培养基中,在厌氧培养后第24和72 h离心获取沉淀。采用扫描电镜、X射线能谱和X射线衍射对沉淀进行分析。【结果】在Se(IV)浓度1 mmol/L的培养基中培养24 h形成的纳米棒沉淀截面直径约80 nm,长度2－3 μm。而培养72 h形成的沉淀较大,超出纳米物质范畴。采用X射线能谱和X射线衍射确定纳米棒组成为单质Se。【结论】本研究为生物合成Se纳米棒提供了一种可行的方法。希瓦氏菌最适宜在1 mmol/L Se(IV)浓度下以及在对数生长期大量合成Se纳米棒,具有潜在应用价值。     

通过优化表达元件及培养基组分提高地衣芽胞杆菌中碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶产量

【背景】碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶(Subtilisin)是一种具有广泛用途的工业酶制剂。【目的】旨在通过优化启动子、信号肽及培养基组分来提高地衣芽胞杆菌中碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶产量。【方法】以地衣芽胞杆菌BL10为出发菌株,构建了含有4种不同类型启动子(PbacA、P43、PaprE和PsrfA)及4种不同类型信号肽(SPVpr、SPSacB、SPSacC和SPAprE)的碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶表达菌株,并在获得高产菌株的基础上进行培养基优化。【结果】4种启动子的表达水平为PbacAPaprEP43PsrfA,4种信号肽的分泌效率为SPAprESPSacCSPSacBSPVpr。其中,菌株BL10/pPbacA-aprE产生最高的碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶酶活(275.21 U/mL),相比于出发菌株BL10/pHY-aprE (167.98 U/mL)提高了64%。随后,通过对发酵培养基成分进行优化并结合正交优化,获得了一种高产碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶的培养基(g/L):玉米淀粉40.0,豆粕50.0,(NH4)2SO4 4.0,K2HPO4 3.0,CaCO3 1.0。最后,碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶酶活提高到747.37 U/mL,是初始酶活的4.45倍。【结论】为工业化高产碱性丝氨酸蛋白酶提供了一种有效策略。     

赖氨酸芽孢杆菌GW-2菌株作用下碳钙镁石的形成

摘要:【目的】微生物诱导碳酸盐矿物沉淀机理的研究有可能为CO2的矿物捕获提供科学依据。【方法】本研究在Mg/Ca 为2的B4培养基中对赖氨酸芽孢杆菌GW-2菌株进行了为期50天的培养实验,同时完成了一组无菌对照实验。在实验过程中,对沉淀物重量、培养液的pH值、电导率及其中细菌数量、Ca2+ 和Mg2+浓度等进行了动态监测。利用扫描电子显微镜对矿物形态进行了跟踪观察,利用X-射线衍射仪对矿物成分进行了测定。【结果】(1)在对GW-2菌株进行培养的过程中发现,沉淀物的质量随着培养时间的延长而逐 渐增加,而在无菌对照实验中未收集到沉淀物;(2)各时间段平均沉淀速率与细菌数量之间(r=0.67,P＜0.05)、沉淀物质量与培养液pH值之间(r=0.79,P＜0.05)均具有显著的正相关关系;(3)沉淀物质量与电导率、Ca2+和Mg2+浓度均呈极显著的负相关关系(r分别为0.89、0.93和0.98,P＜0.001);(4)在赖氨酸芽孢杆菌作用下,3种碳酸盐矿物按如下顺序先后形成:非晶态碳酸钙→碳钙镁石→高镁方解石。【结论】(1)赖氨酸芽孢杆菌GW-2菌株具有诱导碳酸盐矿物形成的能力;(2)细菌数量是控制碳酸盐矿物沉淀的直接因素,而较高的pH值是碳酸盐沉淀的必要条件;(3)电导率以及Ca2+和Mg2+浓度的明显降低可以间接地指示碳酸盐矿物沉淀的发生;(4)碳钙镁石可能主要是非晶态碳酸钙经过老化作用而形成,碳钙镁石可能经脱镁作用转变为高镁方解石。     

In vitro effects of calcium phosphate biomaterials on fibroblastic cell behavior

The effect of synthetic granular hydroxyapatite (HAP) on cultured fibroblastic cells (L929, human bone and gingiva cells) was studied. Phagocytosis of HAP particles and resulting morphological cell changes were demonstrated by microscopic examinations. Cell counts and [3H]thymidine uptake indicated significant increases in cell proliferation and DNA synthesis. These results could account for some of the alterations of the fibroblast behavior induced by changes in intracellular levels of calcium ions released from the material.     

Differential effects of zinc and magnesium ions on mineralization activity of phosphatidylserine calcium phosphate complexes

Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ are present in the mineral of matrix vesicles (MVs) and biological apatites, and are known to influence the onset and progression of mineral formation by amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) and hydroxyapatite (HAP). However, neither has been studied systematically for its effect on mineral formation by phosphatidylserine-Ca²⁺-Pi complexes (PS-CPLX), an important constituent of the MV nucleation core. Presented here are studies on the effects of increasing levels of Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ on the process of mineral formation, either when present in synthetic cartilage lymph (SCL), or when incorporated during the formation of PS-CPLX. Pure HAP and PS-CPLX proved to be powerful nucleators, but ACP took much longer to induce mineral formation. In SCL, Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ had significantly different inhibitory effects on the onset and amount of mineral formation; HAP and PS-CPLX were less affected than ACP. Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ caused similar reductions in the rate and length of rapid mineral formation, but Zn²⁺ was a more potent inhibitor on a molar basis. When incorporated into PS-CPLX, Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺ caused significantly different effects than when present in SCL. Even low, subphysiological levels of Mg²⁺ altered the inherent structure of PS-CPLX and markedly reduced its ability to induce and propagate mineral formation. Incorporated Zn²⁺ caused significantly less effect, low (<20 μM) levels causing almost no inhibition. Levels of Zn²⁺ present in MVs do not appear to inhibit their nucleational activity.     

Aspergillus niger I-1472 and Pycnoporus cinnabarinus MUCL39533, selected for the biotransformation of ferulic acid to vanillin, are also able to produce cell wall polysaccharide-degrading enzymes and feruloyl esterases

The filamentous fungal strains Aspergillus niger I-1472 and Pycnoporus cinnabarinus MUCL39533, previously selected for the bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillic acid and vanillin respectively, were grown on sugar beet pulp. A large spectrum of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes was produced by A. niger and very few levels of feruloyl esterases were found. In contrast, P. cinnabarinus culture filtrate contained low amount of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes and no feruloyl esterases. In order to enhance feruloyl esterases in A. niger cultures, feruloylated oligosaccharide-rich fractions were prepared from sugar beet pulp or cereal bran and used as carbon sources. Number of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes were induced. Feruloyl esterases were much higher in maize bran-based medium than in sugar beet pulp-based medium, demonstrating the ability of carbon sources originating from maize to induce the synthesis of feruloyl esterases. Thus, A. niger I-1472 could be interesting to release ferulic acid from sugar beet pulp or maize bran.     

Reconstitution of the base excision repair pathway for 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine with purified human proteins

In mammalian cells, repair of the most abundant endogenous premutagenic lesion in DNA, 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), is initiated by the bifunctional DNA glycosylase OGG1. By using purified human proteins, we have reconstituted repair of 8-oxoG lesions in DNA in vitro on a plasmid DNA substrate containing a single 8-oxoG residue. It is shown that efficient and complete repair requires only hOGG1, the AP endonuclease HAP1, DNA polymerase (Pol) β and DNA ligase I. After glycosylase base removal, repair occurred through the AP lyase step of hOGG1 followed by removal of the 3′-terminal sugar phosphate by the 3′-diesterase activity of HAP1. Addition of PCNA had a slight stimulatory effect on repair. Fen1 or high concentrations of Pol β were required to induce strand displacement DNA synthesis at incised 8-oxoG in the absence of DNA ligase. Fen1 induced Pol β strand displacement DNA synthesis at HAP1-cleaved AP sites differently from that at gaps introduced by hOGG1/HAP1 at 8-oxoG sites. In the presence of DNA ligase I, the repair reaction at 8-oxoG was confined to 1 nt replacement, even in the presence of high levels of Pol β and Fen1. Thus, the assembly of all the core proteins for 8-oxoG repair catalyses one major pathway that involves single nucleotide repair patches.     

Nucleation and growth of apatite by a self-assembled polycrystalline bioceramic

The formation aspects of a polycrystalline self-assembled bioceramic leading to the nucleation of hard-tissue mineral from a supersaturated solution are discussed. Scanning electron imaging and surface-sensitive interrogations of the nucleated mineral indicated the presence of an intermediate amorphous layer encompassing a rather crystalline phase that formed on niobium oxide (Nb(2)O(5)) microstructures. The crystalline phase was identified from Raman spectroscopy as hydroxyapatite (HAP), while the phosphorous-rich amorphous layer is suggested to have the chemical form CaO-P(2)O(5). In addition, the mechanism favoring HAP nucleation is discussed in terms of the (0 0 2) and (0 0 1) diffraction planes of HAP and Nb(2)O(5), respectively. The small mismatch along several lattice dimensions strongly suggests epitaxy as a dominant mode in the heterogeneous nucleation of HAP. Furthermore, the effectiveness of this mode was shown to critically depend on the self-organization of the Nb(2)O(5) microstructures. Because nucleation does not appear to depend solely on the integrity of Nb(2)O(5) crystals, the self-organization of Nb(2)O(5) crystals also contributes significantly to HAP nucleation. Based on our results, we propose the organized arrangement of bioceramic crystals as a new mode for the bioinspiration of hydroxyapatite and other hard-tissue mineral.     

Lead mineral transformation by fungi.

Pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3Cl), the most stable lead mineral under a wide range of geochemical conditions [1], can form in urban and industrially contaminated soils [2] [3] [4] [5]. It has been suggested that the low solubility of this mineral could reduce the bioavailability of lead, and several studies have advocated pyromorphite formation as a remediation technique for lead-contaminated land [3] [5] [6], if necessary using addition of phosphate [6]. Many microorganisms can, however, make insoluble soil phosphate bioavailable [7] [8] [9] [10], and the solubilisation of insoluble metal phosphates by free-living and symbiotic fungi has been reported [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]. If pyromorphite can be solubilised by microbial phosphate-solubilising mechanisms, the question arises of what would happen to the released lead. We have now clearly demonstrated that pyromorphite can be solubilised by organic-acid-producing fungi, for example Aspergillus niger, and that plants grown with pyromorphite as sole phosphorus source take up both phosphorus and lead. We have also discovered the production of lead oxalate dihydrate by A. niger during pyromorphite transformation, which is the first recorded biogenic formation of this mineral. These mechanisms of lead solubilisation, or its immobilisation as a novel lead oxalate, have significant implications for metal mobility and transfer to other environmental compartments and organisms. The importance of considering microbial processes when developing remediation techniques for toxic metals in soils is therefore emphasised.     

Juvenile hormone analog and injection effects on locust hemolymph protein synthesis

In adult female Locusta migratoria, at about day 8 after eclosion, when vitellogenin (Vg) is first produced as a result of induction by juvenile hormone (JH), the intensity of hemolymph protein electrophoretic bands at about 75 kDa and 20 kDa increases sharply, suggesting that JH may induce additional proteins. A major component of the elevated protein is persistent storage protein (PSP; subunit 74 kDa). Administration of the JH analog, methoprene, to precocene-treated adult locusts was followed by a rise in hemolymph levels of PSP but not in apolipophorin III (19 kDa), identified immunochemically and electrophoretically. The synthesis of PSP in adult fat body was confirmed by incorporation of [³H]leucine. At 48 h after treatment with methoprene, Vg synthesis was induced in females (as previously observed) and synthesis of PSP in both sexes was elevated above controls, while synthesis of apolipophorin III was not stimulated. We conclude that in adult locust fat body the synthesis of several proteins responds in different ways to the JH analog: Vg (and a 21 kDa protein described elsewhere) is induced de novo solely in females; PSP (and a 19 kDa protein described elsewhere) is stimulated in both sexes but is not fully JH-dependent; apolipophorin III is not stimulated. In these experiments, methoprene was administered both by injection in mineral oil and topically in acetone. After injection of mineral oil as a vector control, incorporation into secreted proteins was stimulated at 24 h, presumably due to a wound effect; topical application of acetone avoids this effect and is a preferred route for administration of JH analog. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Use of catabolic repression in the selection of the glucoamylase-producer Aspergillus niger

The effect of various carbon sources and cAMP on the glucoamylase synthesis in Aspergillus niger was studied to find carbon sources repressed the enzyme synthesis and conditions for the selection of catabolite stable mutants. Maltose at a concentration of 0.5% stimulated the glucoamylase synthesis, but at a concentration of 4% it repressed not only the enzyme synthesis but the growth of the parental strain on the agar medium. The more active mutant 66 was obtained as a result of treatment of Asp. niger st 6 with NG. This mutant is able to grow on the Czapek's medium containing maltose at concentrations 4 or 6%. The mutant 66 produced about 2.9 times more glucoamylase than its parent when maltose was added at 0.5% concentration to the medium. The glucoamylase synthesis in the parental strain was completely repressed under repressing conditions, while the level of the mutant strain activity was 35% from the level of enzyme activity on the medium without the repressor. The addition of cAMP (5.10(-5] resulted in a partial release of maltose (4%) repression of the glucoamylase synthesis in both strains. The results obtained indicate a possibility to select Asp niger mutants with the partially derepressed glucoamylase synthesis. Other regulation mechanisms in addition to catabolite repression may be involved in the regulation of the glucoamylase synthesis.     

Localization and stoichiometry of hook-associated proteins within Salmonella typhimurium flagella.

The localization of hook-associated proteins (HAP1, HAP2, and HAP3) in Salmonella typhimurium flagella was studied by using specific antibodies together with a second antibody conjugated with colloidal gold. HAP1 and HAP3 were localized at the hook-filament junction, as has been suggested previously. HAP2, however, was localized at the filament tip. This finding supports the idea that HAP2 acts to induce polymerization of endogenous flagellin at the filament tip, and HAP1 and HAP3 are junction proteins to connect hook with filament. Analysis of the protein composition of short flagella from a mutant indicated that a single flagellum contains about 10 to 20 HAP1, 10 to 20 HAP2, and 10 to 40 HAP3 molecules.