S-亚胺还原酶和葡萄糖脱氢酶共表达系统的构建及手性胺的合成

旨在构建S-亚胺还原酶(S-IRED)和葡萄糖脱氢酶(GDH)在大肠杆菌中的一菌双酶共表达系统,实现辅酶NADPH的再生,高效合成手性仲胺。利用无缝克隆的手段设计构建一种单质粒双启动子共表达系统,以全细胞为催化剂催化手性仲胺S-2-甲基吡咯烷(S-2MP)的合成,并研究温度、pH及有机溶剂对双酶反应的影响。成功构建了S-IRED和GDH的重组共表达质粒,实现了S-IRED与GDH在大肠杆菌中的胞内共表达,以亚胺2-甲基吡咯啉(2MPN)为模式底物,以工程菌全细胞催化手性仲胺S-2MP的合成,在低辅酶添加时催化手性胺的产率和光学纯度均高于95%。该双酶共表达体系的最适温度和pH分别为37℃和pH 8,10%以下的甲醇对双酶反应有正向促进作用。大肠杆菌胞内双酶共表达系统的构建实现了辅酶NADPH的原位再生,降低了亚胺还原酶催化合成手性胺的成本,为手性胺的规模制备奠定了基础。     

胺脱氢酶催化合成手性胺的机遇与挑战

光学纯的手性胺是一类重要的手性砌块,广泛应用于药物、天然产物、精细化学品等化合物的合成中。手性胺的酶促合成方法因立体选择性高、反应条件温和、反应过程绿色等优点,引起了学术界与工业界的广泛关注。近年来,一类新颖的胺脱氢酶被报道,其能够利用廉价氨作为氨基供体,催化酮的不对称还原胺化,成为一种有潜力的手性胺合成生物催化剂。在胺脱氢酶的发现、分子改造、底物谱拓展、过程强化、多酶级联构建等方面已取得了显著的进展。本文中,笔者对该类酶取得的研究进展进行总结,并预测其未来的研究趋势和应用中面临的机遇与挑战。     

甲酸脱氢酶及其在手性生物制造中的应用

氧化还原生物合成体系在绿色生物制造手性化合物中具有重要应用价值。甲酸脱氢酶（formate dehydrogenase, FDH）能氧化甲酸盐生成二氧化碳,同时将NAD（P）⁺还原为NAD（P）H,是氧化还原生物合成中辅酶再生体系的关键酶。但天然的FDH催化效率低、稳定性差、辅酶利用率不高等缺点制约了其在工业生产中的应用。文中着重介绍了FDH的结构特征、催化机制以及不同来源FDH在酶活、催化效率、稳定性及辅酶偏好性改造方面的研究进展,同时总结了利用FDH作为辅酶再生系统进行绿色生物制造手性化合物的应用实例。     

高通量筛选具有催化活性和立体选择性羰基还原酶

根据羰基还原酶催化可逆氧化还原反应的原理,利用与偶氮还原酶催化偶氮染料还原反应耦合的颜色变化,建立了一种新的羰基还原酶筛选方法。由于羰基还原酶在催化醇底物氧化反应时会产生NAD(P)H,当在反应体系中加入偶氮还原酶AzoB和偶氮染料金橙Ⅰ的时候,偶氮还原酶可以利用NAD(P)H作为电子的供体与底物金橙Ⅰ发生反应,导致反应体系颜色的变化,这样就能够根据明显的颜色变化推断出该羰基还原酶是否对所选底物表现出特定的活性,进而可以筛选出有活性的羰基还原酶。同时,使用不同构型的手性醇作为底物时,根据体系的颜色变化,可以实现羰基还原酶的活性和立体选择性的同时筛选。     

羰基还原酶及其催化不对称合成大基团手性羟基类化合物的研究进展

手性羟基化合物以其独特的光、热和化学性质广泛应用于医药、农药、精细化工、功能材料等行业.立体专一性羰基还原酶能够直接针对关键手性位点催化不对称还原潜手性底物获得目的手性产物.基于羰基还原酶的底物多样性,具有不同化学结构和功能的醇类、酯类、氨基酸、环氧化合物等重要手性中间体能够通过不对称还原途径实现单一光学活性对映体的高效制备.然而,针对具有应用价值的含有大基团、结构复杂的潜手性羰基化合物,已知的羰基还原酶通常催化活性较低.本文综述了生物催化不对称氧化还原反应的特点和规律及其关键立体选择性羰基还原酶的性质和结构特征,并在此基础上,重点针对大基团手性羟基化合物的不对称合成,总结了羰基还原酶及其催化系统开发和应用的研究进展,并进一步提出解决该关键问题的主要发展策略.     

高选择性不对称还原N,N-二甲基-3-酮-3-(2-噻吩)-1-丙胺的重组氧化还原酶催化性质及其酶促转化

【目的】通过表达多种重组立体选择性氧化还原酶,分析其催化不对称还原N,N-二甲基-3-酮-3-(2-噻吩)-1-丙胺(DKTP)的性质,从而构建酶促合成(S)-N,N-二甲基-3-羟基-3-(2-噻吩)-1-丙胺(DHTP)的反应体系。【方法】基于已有立体选择性氧化还原酶重组大肠杆菌,通过Ni离子亲和层析法纯化得到重组氧化还原酶,以DKTP为底物,考察不同重组氧化还原酶对DKTP的催化活性和选择性,进一步对高选择性酶促合成(S)-DHTP的重组酶CR2进行性质分析,并考察其在最适条件下不对称还原DKTP的过程。【结果】筛选获得产物构型为(S)-型的催化活性最高的酶为CR2,该酶米氏常数Km为0.135 mmol/L,kcat/Km为3.689 L/(mmol·s),最适p H 8.4(0.1 mol/L三乙醇胺缓冲液),最适反应温度为35°C,在10-45°C条件下和p H 7.5-8.5较为稳定,Zn2+离子对酶活有促进作用。CR2催化DKTP不对称还原反应6 h后,DHTP的产率达92.1%、光学纯度达99.9%。【结论】基于活性和选择性分析,获得不对称还原DKTP的目标酶CR2,其催化特性有利于高立体选择性还原DKTP生成度洛西汀中间体(S)-DHTP,从而为进一步提高酶促不对称还原DKTP的转化效率提供研究基础。     

利用微生物重组技术促进羰基不对称还原研究进展

手性醇是许多手性药物合成的关键手性砌块,利用微生物细胞催化相应前手性羰基化合物不对称还原,是合成手性醇的重要方法之一。但应用野生微生物催化时,反应的时空产率、立体选择性较低。详细介绍了利用微生物重组技术以促进前手性羰基化合物不对称还原反应合成手性醇的国内外研究进展。从酶的种类、表达系统以及辅酶再生系统3个方面对重组细胞催化反应体系的构建进行了概述。同时按照反应底物的类型,对重组微生物在催化不同类型羰基化合物不对称还原合成手性醇中的应用分别进行了归纳和介绍。     

还原酶催化羰基不对称还原的应用进展

羰基不对称还原作为合成手性醇的重要方法,已成为近年来有机合成的研究热点。与传统化学法相比,利用还原酶催化前手性羰基化合物的不对称还原具有显著优势。介绍了还原酶的来源与形式,对完整细胞还原酶与游离还原酶在手性药物不对称合成中的应用进行了简要综述。     

生物催化不对称还原制备氟代手性醇

由于氟原子的特殊性质，化合物中引入氟原子可显著改变其物理化学性质。因此，氟原子在药物中的应用越来越广。此外，80%药物分子结构属于手性分子。其中，氟代手性醇常见于手性药物结构中，该类结构的合成方法研究具有重要的意义。不对称还原含氟酮是合成此结构的常见方法。与化学还原方法相比，生物催化还原具有对映选择性强、产率高和易于分离纯化等优点。生物催化，特别是酶催化还原含氟酮类化合物成为手性药物合成领域的研究热点。本文从纯化酶催化和全细胞催化两个方面，综述了近年来含氟酮生物催化还原合成氟代手性醇的研究进展，并分析总结了氟代对酮生物催化还原的影响，最后对生物催化还原法未来的发展进行了展望。     

不对称还原前手性芳香酮微生物的筛选及反应特性

含芳香基手性醇是许多手性药物合成的关键手性砌块,生物催化不对称还原前手性酮是合成该类醇的重要方法之一.以4'-氯-苯乙酮为模型底物,从土壤中筛选得到一株能高效催化前手性芳香酮不对称还原合成相应手性醇的菌株,鉴定表明该菌株为白地霉( Geotrichum candid ).进一步考察了其催化4'-氯-苯乙酮不对称还原的反应特性,发现还原4'-氯-苯乙酮的产物主要为 S-4'-氯苯乙醇.在合适的反应条件下,其产率达到35%,对映选择性高于97%.     

Review of NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases: Properties,engineering and application

NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases catalyze the reduction or oxidation of a substrate coupled to the oxidation or reduction, respectively, of a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide cofactor NAD(P)H or NAD(P)⁺. NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases catalyze a large variety of reactions and play a pivotal role in many central metabolic pathways. Due to the high activity, regiospecificity and stereospecificity with which they catalyze redox reactions, they have been used as key components in a wide range of applications, including substrate utilization, the synthesis of chemicals, biodegradation and detoxification. There is great interest in tailoring NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases to make them more suitable for particular applications. Here, we review the main properties and classes of NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases, the types of reactions they catalyze, some of the main protein engineering techniques used to modify their properties and some interesting examples of their modification and application.     

Glutamate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase activities during the development of triticale grains

Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH, EC 1.4.1.2–4) and glutamine synthetase (GS, EC 6.3.1.2) activities as well as protein content and dry matter in developing kernels of winter Triticale were determined. The relatively low level of GS activity compared to high level of NAD(P)H-dependent GDH activity during intensive filling of grains with storage compounds may indicate the participation of GDH in reductive amination of 2-oxoglutarate. The amination activity of this enzyme in all grain development phases exceeded the deaminating activity several fold. Moreover, the dynamics in the change of NAD(P)H-GDH and NAD(P)⁺-GDH activities were analysed in various tissues of the developing grains. The high amination activity of the enzyme in the seed coat, where the intensive protein synthesis occurs would also be an indication of the anabolic function of this enzyme.     

Inhibition of microsomal NAD(P)H oxidation by Triton X-100

The non-ionic detergent Triton X-100 is shown to inhibit the spontaneous oxidation of NAD(P)H associated with rat liver microsomes. Advantage of this observation is taken to measure different microsomal NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductase activities such as 3-alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, dihydrodiol dehydrogenase and various xenobiotic oxidoreductases. This inhibition provides an easy method for the screening of the under-investigated microsomal oxidoreductive metabolism of xenobiotics.     

Inhibition of pyridine-nucleotide-dependent enzymes by pyrazoles. Synthesis and enzymology of a novel A-ring pyrazole steroid

A novel A-ring pyrazole steroid, 2,3-bisaza-A-nor-1,5(10)-estradien-17 beta-ol (3), was synthesized as a potential inhibitor of steroidal NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases. Compound 3 proved to be a potent inhibitor of 3(17)beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (from P. testosteroni) exhibiting a Ki of 90 +/- 20 nM. The activities of 3 alpha,20 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (from S. hydrogenans), steroid-5 alpha-reductase (from rat prostate), and 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (from rat liver) were unaffected by pyrazole 3. Dead end inhibition studies indicate an ordered binding of cofactor prior to substrate or pyrazole inhibitor.     

Directed evolution of a thermostable phosphite dehydrogenase for NAD(P)H regeneration

NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases are valuable tools for synthesis of chiral compounds. The expense of the cofactors, however, requires in situ cofactor regeneration for preparative applications. We have attempted to develop an enzymatic system based on phosphite dehydrogenase (PTDH) from Pseudomonas stutzeri to regenerate the reduced nicotinamide cofactors NADH and NADPH. Here we report the use of directed evolution to address one of the main limitations with the wild-type PTDH enzyme, its low stability. After three rounds of random mutagenesis and high-throughput screening, 12 thermostabilizing amino acid substitutions were identified. These 12 mutations were combined by site-directed mutagenesis, resulting in a mutant whose T50 is 20 degrees C higher and half-life of thermal inactivation at 45 degrees C is >7,000-fold greater than that of the parent PTDH. The engineered PTDH has a half-life at 50 degrees C that is 2.4-fold greater than the Candida boidinii formate dehydrogenase, an enzyme widely used for NADH regeneration. In addition, its catalytic efficiency is slightly higher than that of the parent PTDH. Various mechanisms of thermostabilization were identified using molecular modeling. The improved stability and effectiveness of the final mutant were shown using the industrially important bioconversion of trimethylpyruvate to l-tert-leucine. The engineered PTDH will be useful in NAD(P)H regeneration for industrial biocatalysis.     

Biocatalytic asymmetric amination of carbonyl functional groups – a synthetic biology approach to organic chemistry

Transaminases catalyze amino transfer reactions from amino donors such as amino acids or amines to keto acids or ketones to give chiral amino acid or amines in optically pure form. α-Amino acid dehydrogenases catalyze the asymmetric reductive amination of α-keto acids using ammonia as amino donor to furnish L -amino acids. The distinct features and synthetic application of these two enzymes are reviewed in an effort to illustrate their promising and challenging aspects in serving as approaches to the direct asymmetric synthesis of optically pure amines from the corresponding keto compounds, a formidable problem in organic chemistry.     

N-methyl-L-amino acid dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas putida. A novel member of an unusual NAD(P)-dependent oxidoreductase superfamily

We found N-methyl-L-amino acid dehydrogenase activity in various bacterial strains, such as Pseudomonas putida and Bacillus alvei, and cloned the gene from P. putida ATCC12633 into Escherichia coli. The enzyme purified to homogeneity from recombinant E. coli catalyzed the NADPH-dependent formation of N-alkyl-L-amino acids from the corresponding alpha-oxo acids (e.g. pyruvate, phenylpyruvate, and hydroxypyruvate) and alkylamines (e.g. methylamine, ethylamine, and propylamine). Ammonia was inert as a substrate, and the enzyme was clearly distinct from conventional NAD(P)-dependent amino acid dehydrogenases, such as alanine dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.1). NADPH was more than 300 times more efficient than NADH as a hydrogen donor in the enzymatic reductive amination. Primary structure analysis revealed that the enzyme belongs to a new NAD(P)-dependent oxidoreductase superfamily, the members of which show no sequence homology to conventional NAD(P)-dependent amino acid dehydrogenases and opine dehydrogenases.     

Kinetic studies of dogfish liver glutamate dehydrogenase.

Initial-rate studies were made of the oxidation of L-glutamate by NAD+ and NADP+ catalysed by highly purified preparations of dogfish liver glutamate dehydrogenase. With NAD+ as coenzyme the kinetics show the same features of coenzyme activation as seen with the bovine liver enzyme [Engel & Dalziel (1969) Biochem. J. 115, 621--631]. With NADP+ as coenzyme, initial rates are much slower than with NAD+, and Lineweaver--Burk plots are linear over extended ranges of substrate and coenzyme concentration. Stopped-flow studies with NADP+ as coenzyme give no evidence for the accumulation of significant concentrations of NADPH-containing complexes with the enzyme in the steady state. Protection studies against inactivation by pyridoxal 5'-phosphate indicate that NAD+ and NADP+ give the same degree of protection in the presence of sodium glutarate. The results are used to deduce information about the mechanism of glutamate oxidation by the enzyme. Initial-rate studies of the reductive amination of 2-oxoglutarate by NADH and NADPH catalysed by dogfish liver glutamate dehydrogenase showed that the kinetic features of the reaction are very similar with both coenzymes, but reactions with NADH are much faster. The data show that a number of possible mechanisms for the reaction may be discarded, including the compulsory mechanism (previously proposed for the enzyme) in which the sequence of binding is NAD(P)H, NH4+ and 2-oxoglutarate. The kinetic data suggest either a rapid-equilibrium random mechanism or the compulsory mechanism with the binding sequence NH4+, NAD(P)H, 2-oxoglutarate. However, binding studies and protection studies indicate that coenzyme and 2-oxoglutarate do bind to the free enzyme.     

Purification and properties of alanine dehydrogenase from Bacillus sphaericus.

1. The bacterial distribution of alanine dehydrogenase (L-alanine:NAD+ oxidoreductase, deaminating, EC 1.4.1.1) was investigated, and high activity was found in Bacillus species. The enzyme has been purified to homogeneity and crystallized from B. sphaericus (IFO 3525), in which the highest activity occurs. 2. The enzyme has a molecular weight of about 230 000, and is composed of six identical subunits (Mr 38 000). 3. The enzyme acts almost specifically on L-alanine, but shows low amino-acceptor specificity; pyruvate and 2-oxobutyrate are the most preferable substrates, and 2-oxovalerate is also animated. The enzyme requires NAD+ as a cofactor, which cannot be replaced by NADP+. 4. The enzyme is stable over a wide pH range (pH 6.0--10.0), and shows maximum reactivity at approximately pH 10.5 and 9.0 for the deamination and amination reactions, respectively. 5. Alanine dehydrogenase is inhibited significantly by HgCl2, p-chloromercuribenzoate and other metals, but none of purine and pyrimidine bases, nucleosides, nucleotides, flavine compounds and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate influence the activity. 6. The reductive amination proceeds through a sequential ordered ternary-binary mechanism. NADH binds first to the enzyme followed by ammonia and pyruvate, and the products are released in the order of L-ALANINE AND NAD+. The Michaelis constants are as follows: NADH (10 microM), ammonia (28.2 mM), pyruvate (1.7 mM), L-alanine (18.9 mM) and NAD+ (0.23 mM). 7. The pro-R hydrogen at C-4 of the reduced nicotinamide ring of NADH is exclusively transferred to pyruvate; the enzyme is A-stereospecific.     

Synthesis of optically pure 1,2-epoxypropane by microbial asymmetric reduction of chloroacetone

A number of bacteria and yeast was screened for asymmetric reduction of prochiral chloroacetone into chiral 1-chloro-2-propanol, which is chemically convertible into chiral 1,2-epoxypropane. In this way Rhodotorula glutinis produced optically pure S-1,2-epoxypropane with 98% enantiomeric excess and in a relatively high final concentration. The enzyme that catalysed the asymmetric reduction was an NAD(P)H-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase. Reduction of racemic 3-chloro-2-butanone resulted in mixtures of cis and trans-2,3-epoxybutane, indicating that no enantioselective reduction of this haloketone occurred. Correspondence to: C. A. G. M. Weijers