细胞穿透肽:一种新型非病毒载体

细胞膜的选择通透性对维持细胞内环境的稳定起着非常重要的作用,但细胞膜的这种特性限制了一些生物大分子和药物进入细胞内,不利于对一些细胞内疾病的诊断和药物靶向治疗的应用。如何将一些具有诊断和治疗潜力的生物大分子、药物通过细胞膜进入细胞内一直是医学界研究的热点和难点。细胞穿透肽是一类能够携带多肽、蛋白质、核酸、纳米颗粒、病毒颗粒及药物等穿过细胞膜进入细胞,导致完整载物内化的短肽,为生物大分子和药物进入细胞内部提供了有力的运载工具,其作为载体具有的高转导效率和低毒性特点,已经得到了广泛关注和大量研究。目前,细胞穿透肽作为生物分子和药物细胞内化的运载体已经在荧光成像,肿瘤治疗,抗炎治疗及药物靶向治疗中发挥了潜在的诊断和治疗作用,显示出其诱人的应用前景。     

细胞穿透肽应用的研究进展

细胞穿透肽是一类具有特殊细胞膜穿透作用的短肽,研究发现其为药物大分子物质的细胞内转运提供了有力工具,现已得到了广泛关注和大量研究.一方面,近年来发现,细胞穿透肽的应用面临着药物释放率、代谢降解、细胞系的分化状态和Rho-GTPases活性的依赖性等问题,从而阻碍了其研究开发的进程.另一方面,细胞穿透肽在肿瘤治疗、抗菌和抗炎靶向药物等方面的研究却取得了显著的进展,甚至进入了临床前和临床研究阶段.本文围绕细胞穿透肽在应用开发中所面临的挑战和机遇两方面,综述了近期的研究进展,并对细胞穿透肽在新领域中的应用进行了展望.     

细胞穿膜肽研究应用的新进展

细胞穿膜肽(Cell-penetrating peptides,CPPs)是一类能够穿过细胞膜或组织屏障的短肽。CPPs可通过内吞和直接穿透等机制运载蛋白质、RNA、DNA等生物大分子进入细胞内发挥其效应功能。相比于其他非天然的化学分子,CPPs具有生物相容性佳、对细胞造成的毒性小、完成入胞转运后可降解、并能与生物活性蛋白直接融合重组表达等优点,因此成为以胞内分子为靶标的药物递送技术发展的重要工具,并在生物医学研究领域具有良好的应用前景。文中针对CPPs的分类特点、入胞转运机制及其治疗应用的新近研究进展进行综述和讨论。     

细胞穿膜肽作为药物载体的研究进展

由于细胞膜的天然屏障作用,大多数具有治疗作用的极性分子、多肽、寡聚核苷酸很难进入细胞内发挥药效作用[1~3],因此很多具有良好治疗功能的大分子生物活性物质在实际应用中受到了极大的限制.为了克服这一治疗障碍和药物的转运,人们已经发展了各种穿透细胞膜的技术[4].目前通过细胞膜向细胞内转运的技术有病毒载体和非病毒载体.非病毒载体包括电穿孔、显微注射和脂质体转染[5,6].虽然这些方法广泛使用,但是存在很大的局限性,如转入效率低,细胞毒性大等.因此,寻找一种高效、无毒和能够穿过细胞的物质势在必行.     

穿膜肽的研究现状及应用

以细胞内物质为靶标的药物(大分子、蛋白质、多肽及核酸)只有穿透细胞膜才能进一步发挥其药效。细胞穿透多肽(穿膜肽)是由少于30个氨基酸残基组成的小肽,它们能够通过与细胞膜相互作用而穿透细胞膜这一天然屏障。穿膜肽大致分为宿主防御肽、基于信号序列的穿膜肽和富含精氨酸的穿膜肽;穿膜肽进入细胞的机制尚未完全阐明,存在倒置微团模型、地毯式模型及打孔模型等假说。穿膜肽能够携带各种物质进入细胞的特性受到人们的关注。我们就穿膜肽的种类、穿膜机制,及其在生物影像学和生物递送系统中的应用做一综述。     

超电荷绿色荧光蛋白(+36GFP):一种新型生物大分子穿膜载体

超电荷绿色荧光蛋白(sc GFP)是一种表面带很高净电荷的新型功能蛋白质。ScGFP具有很强的水溶性和抗蛋白质聚集的能力,在生物技术、医药和材料科学方面有着广泛的应用前景。带正电荷的sc GFP能够穿透细胞膜,具有运载核酸和蛋白质等生物大分子进入哺乳动物细胞内的能力。与传统的转运载体相比,sc GFP有细胞毒性低、转运效率高和具广泛的细胞普适性等优点。带正电荷的sc GFP与带负电荷的核酸分子之间通过静电相互作用形成自组装的多离子复合物,这与生物体中的组蛋白和带负电荷的DNA之间自组装成染色质的行为非常相似。本文以带有36个正电荷的超电荷绿色荧光蛋白(+36GFP)为例,对超电荷蛋白的性质,细胞穿透能力以及其作为生物大分子穿透载体的应用等方面做一综述。     

细胞穿透肽设计及肿瘤靶向治疗

细胞穿透肽是近年来发现的具有穿透生物膜功能,并能介导大分子物质跨膜转导的一类小分子短肽。该肽段以其转导效率高,速度快,生物活性好,对细胞损害小等特点,成为药物导向治疗方法研究领域的热点。肿瘤靶向治疗的一个局限性是不能使药物有效地进入肿瘤细胞内,极大地降低了肿瘤靶向药物治疗的疗效。因此,如何使抗癌药物特定输送至肿瘤细胞群是当前亟需研究设计的课题,本文就特异性靶向穿膜肽在肿瘤靶向治疗方面的设计、应用作一综述。     

一种新的大分子纳米载体—细胞穿透肽的研究和应用进展

自从20年余前第一次发现细胞穿透肽(cell-penetrating peptides,CPPs)以来,细胞穿透肽新家族成员的发掘和应用研究发展迅速。这些短肽可以通过共价或非共价连接形式穿过细胞膜,并且可以携带多种没有能力克服细胞膜通透性障碍的分子进入细胞。作为纳米级转运载体,大多数CPPs是无毒的,并已成为药物治疗、诊断以及蛋白质、核酸功能等方面研究的新型潜在工具。该文重点从CPPs的分类、结构与功能关系、跨膜机制、细胞器定位、细胞毒性、与外源物质连接方式以及应用等方面介绍了国际上有关CPPs的研究进展及其存在的挑战和未来前景。     

综述: 细胞穿透肽及其结构改造在siRNA传递中的应用

小RNA药物应用于临床的主要技术瓶颈在于如何高效、低毒地将小RNA分子传递到它发挥功能的场所．基于细胞穿透肽在小RNA透皮给药的临床应用中所取得的进展,本文系统评述了近年来细胞穿透肽在小RNA的体内、体外传递方面的研究动态,分析了细胞穿透肽的结构改造对肽/小RNA复合物转染进入细胞发挥功能的影响,展望了细胞穿透肽作为小RNA的体内药物传递载体的发展方向．     

细胞穿透肽在白菜小孢子中的内化及其效率的探究

该研究以大白菜‘94-323’为材料,通过分析细胞穿透肽(cell-penetrating peptide,CPP)在其小孢子细胞中的内化及其效率,证明了细胞穿透肽Tat2可以克服花粉壁的障碍,独自或者转导GUS酶和DNA(环型质粒DNA、线型质粒DNA)等大分子进入大白菜小孢子中;同时研究了Tat2介导的DNA在白菜小孢子中内化效率的影响因素。结果表明:内化效率与Tat2/DNA复合物和小孢子共育时间正相关,随复合物浓度的升高而增加,最适共育温度为33°C,与转导DNA片段的长度关系不明显。该研究首次证明,Tat2可以作为纳米载体传递大分子进入双子叶植物小孢子细胞,GUS酶的内化频率可达到18%,可为细胞穿透肽介导的芸薹属小孢子转基因技术的建立提供直接的实验依据。     

Identification of a novel cell-penetrating peptide from human phosphatidate phosphatase LPIN3

Biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, and RNA are macromolecules and can not cross the cell membrane. However, cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) has been shown to deliver therapeutic biomolecules successfully into cells. The various and widely used CPPs including TAT, VP22, and Antp are mostly non-human originated CPPs, and are limited by their potential toxicity and immunogenicity. We report here on a newly identified novel cell-penetrating sequence (LPIN; RRKRRRRRK) from the nuclear localization sequence (NLS) of human nuclear phosphatase, LPIN3. LPIN-EGFP recombinant protein was concentration- and time-dependently delivered into cells and localized to the nucleus as well as the cytoplasm. It penetrated the cell membrane by lipid raft-mediated endocytosis by binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan. LPIN-EGFP was successfully delivered into primary mouse splenocytes in vitro and it could be delivered into various tissues including liver, kidney, and intestine in mice after intra-peritoneal injection. This research suggests that LPIN-CPP could be used in a drug delivery system to deliver therapeutic biomolecules including peptides, proteins, DNA, and RNA and without the limitations of non-human originated CPPs such as TAT-CPP.     

COPA and SLC4A4 are Required for Cellular Entry of Arginine-Rich Peptides

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have gained attention as promising tools to enable the delivery of various molecules in a non-invasive manner. Among the CPPs, TAT and poly-arginine have been extensively utilized in numerous studies for the delivery of functional proteins, peptides, and macromolecules to analyze cellular signaling. However, the molecular mechanisms of cellular entry remain largely unknown. Here, we applied siRNA library screening to identify the regulatory genes for the cellular entry of poly-arginine peptide based on microscopic observation of the entry of fluorescent peptides in siRNA-treated cells. In this screening, we identified the cell membrane gene SLC4A4 and the trafficking regulator gene COPA, which also plays an important role in early endosome maturation. These results demonstrated that cellular entry of poly-arginine requires at least two different steps, probably binding on the cell surface and endosomal entry. The identification of genes for cellular entry of poly-arginine provides insights into its mechanisms and should further aid in the development of highly efficient cell-penetrating peptides.     

Intelligent substance delivery into cells using cell-penetrating peptides

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are oligopeptides that can permeate the cell membrane. The use of a CPP-mediated transport system could be an excellent method for delivering cell-impermeable substances such as proteins, antibodies, antisense oligonucleotides, siRNAs, plasmids, drugs, fluorescent compounds, and nanoparticles as covalently or noncovalently conjugated cargo into cells. Nonetheless, the mechanisms through which CPPs are internalized remain unclear. Endocytosis and direct translocation through the membrane are the generally accepted routes. Internalization via both pathways can occur simultaneously, depending on cellular conditions. However, the peculiar property of CPPs has attracted many researchers, especially in drug discovery or development, who intend to deliver impermeable substances into cells through the cell membrane. The delivery of drugs using CPPs may non-invasively solve the problem of drug penetration into cells with the added benefit of low cytotoxicity. Moreover, macromolecules can also be delivered by this transport system. In this review, I discuss the possibilities and advantages of substance delivery into cells using CPPs.     

Cellular uptake of Aib-containing amphipathic helix peptide

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are useful tools for the delivery of hydrophilic bioactive molecules, such as peptides, proteins, and oligonucleotides, across the cell membrane. To realize the delivery of therapeutic macromolecules by CPPs, the CPPs are required to show resistance to protease and no cytotoxicity. In order to produce potent non-toxic and protease-resistant CPPs with high cellular uptake, we designed an amphipathic helix peptide using α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib, U) and named it MAP(Aib). In the MAP(Aib) molecule, five Aib residues are aligned on the hydrophobic face of the helix and five lysine (K) residues are aligned on the hydrophilic face. MAP(Aib) showed potent resistance to trypsin and pronase compared with MAP, an amphipathic helix peptide formed by usual amino acids. Fluorescein-labeled MAP(Aib) efficiently traversed the A549 cell membrane, diffusing into the cytoplasm and slightly into the nucleus without exerting any cytotoxicity. In contrast, MAP was poorly taken up by the cell. These results indicate that the incorporation of Aib residues into CPPs markedly improves cellular uptake and MAP(Aib) may be a useful tool for the delivery of hydrophilic macromolecules.     

Internalisation of cell-penetrating peptides into tobacco protoplasts

Cells are protected from the surrounding environment by plasma membrane which is impenetrable for most hydrophilic molecules. In the last 10 years cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been discovered and developed. CPPs enter mammalian cells and carry cargo molecules over the plasma membrane with a molecular weight several times their own. Known transformation methods for plant cells have relatively low efficiency and require improvement. The possibility to use CPPs as potential delivery vectors for internalisation in plant cells has been studied in the present work. We analyse and compare the uptake of the fluorescein-labeled CPPs, transportan, TP10, penetratin and pVEC in Bowes human melanoma cells and Nicotiana tabacum cultivar (cv.) SR-1 protoplasts (plant cells without cell wall). We study the internalisation efficiency of CPPs with fluorescence microscopy, spectrofluorometry and fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). All methods indicate, for the first time, that these CPPs can internalise into N. tabacum cv. SR-1 protoplasts. Transportan has the highest uptake efficacy among the studied peptides, both in mammalian cells and plant protoplast. The internalisation of CPPs by plant protoplasts may open up a new effective method for transfection in plants.     

Cell-penetrating peptides: [corrected] from inception to application

Despite continuing advances in the development of macromolecules, including peptides, proteins, and oligonucleotides, for therapeutic purposes, the successful application of these hydrophilic molecules has so far been hampered by their inability to efficiently traverse the cellular plasma membrane. The discovery of a class of peptides (cell-penetrating peptides, CPPs) with the ability to mediate the non-invasive and efficient import of a whole host of cargoes, both in vitro and in vivo, has provided a new means by which the problem associated with cellular delivery can be circumvented. A complete understanding of the translocation mechanism(s) of CPPs has so far proven elusive. Initial studies indicated an ATP-independent, non-endocytotic mechanism, dependent on direct peptide-membrane interactions, making it an enticing challenge from a biophysical point of view. However, recent evidence cast doubt on many of the earlier results, and led to a re-evaluation of the translocation mechanism of CPPs. In this review a brief history of the field will be given, followed by an introduction to some of the better known and more widely used CPPs, including some of their current applications, and finally a discussion of the translocation mechanism(s) and the controversies surrounding it.     

Internalisation of cell-penetrating peptides into tobacco protoplasts

Cells are protected from the surrounding environment by plasma membrane which is impenetrable for most hydrophilic molecules. In the last 10 years cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been discovered and developed. CPPs enter mammalian cells and carry cargo molecules over the plasma membrane with a molecular weight several times their own. Known transformation methods for plant cells have relatively low efficiency and require improvement. The possibility to use CPPs as potential delivery vectors for internalisation in plant cells has been studied in the present work. We analyse and compare the uptake of the fluorescein-labeled CPPs, transportan, TP10, penetratin and pVEC in Bowes human melanoma cells and Nicotiana tabacum cultivar (cv.) SR-1 protoplasts (plant cells without cell wall). We study the internalisation efficiency of CPPs with fluorescence microscopy, spectrofluorometry and fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). All methods indicate, for the first time, that these CPPs can internalise into N. tabacum cv. SR-1 protoplasts. Transportan has the highest uptake efficacy among the studied peptides, both in mammalian cells and plant protoplast. The internalisation of CPPs by plant protoplasts may open up a new effective method for transfection in plants.     

The CPP Tat enhances eGFP cell internalization and transepithelial transport by the larval midgut of Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera, Bombycidae)

Cell-Penetrating Peptides (CPPs) are short peptides that are able to translocate across the cell membrane a wide range of cargoes. In the past decade, different mammalian cell lines have been used to clarify the mechanism of CPPs penetration and to characterize the internalization process, which has been described either as an energy-independent direct penetration through the plasma membrane, or as endocytic uptake. Whatever the mechanism involved, the cell penetration properties of these peptides make their use very attractive as vector for promoting the cellular uptake of coupled bioactive macromolecules, such as peptides, proteins and oligonucleotides. Here we demonstrate, for the first time in insect, that cultured columnar cells from the larval midgut of Bombyx mori more readily internalize eGFP (enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein) when fused to CPP Tat. Tat-eGFP translocates across the plasma membrane of absorptive cells in an energy-independent and non-endocytic manner, since no inhibition of the fusion protein uptake is exerted by metabolic inhibitors and by drugs that interfere with the endocytic uptake. Moreover, the CPP Tat enhances the internalization of eGFP in the columnar cells of intact midgut tissue, mounted in a suitable perfusion apparatus, and the transepithelial flux of the protein. These results open new perspectives for effective delivery of insecticidal macromolecules targeting receptors located both within the insect gut epithelium and behind the gut barrier, in the hemocoel compartment.     

Properties of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs)

Different approaches have been developed for the introduction of macromolecules, proteins and DNA into target cells. Viral (retroviruses, lentiviruses, etc.) and nonviral (liposomes, bioballistics etc.) vectors as well as lipid particles have been tested as DNA delivery systems. However, all of them share several undesirable effects that are difficult to overcome, such as unwanted immunoresponse and limited cell targeting. The discovery of the cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) showing properties of macromolecules carriers and enhancers of viral vectors, opened new opportunities for the delivery of biologically active cargos, including therapeutically relevant genes into various cells and tissues. This review summarizes recent data about the best characterized CPPs as well as those sharing cell-penetrating and cargo delivery properties despite differing in the primary sequence. The putative mechanisms of CPPs penetration into cells and interaction with intracellular structures such as chromosomes, cytoskeleton and centrioles are addressed. We further discuss recent developments in overcoming the lack of cells specificity, one of the main obstacles for CPPs application in gene therapy. In particular, we review a newly discovered affinity of CPPs to actively proliferating cells.     

A gene delivery system for insect cells mediated by arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides

Most bioactive macromolecules, such as protein, DNA and RNA, basically cannot permeate into cells freely from outside the plasma membrane. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a group of short peptides that possess the ability to traverse the cell membrane and have been considered as candidates for mediating gene and drug delivery into living cells. In this study, we demonstrate that three arginine-rich CPPs (SR9, HR9 and PR9) are able to form stable complexes with plasmid DNA and deliver DNA into insect Sf9 cells in a noncovalent manner. The transferred plasmid DNA containing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and red fluorescent protein (RFP) coding regions could be expressed in cells functionally assayed at both the protein and RNA levels. Furthermore, treatment of cells with CPPs and CPP/DNA complexes resulted in a viability of 84-93% indicating these CPPs are not cytotoxic. These results suggest that arginine-rich CPPs appear to be a promising tool for insect transgenesis.